Table Of ContentTEACHING CRITICAL THINKING IN SAUDI    
ARABIA: A STUDY OF TWO PRE-SERVICE 
TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS 
 
 
 
 
by 
 
 
Alhasan Yahya Allamnakhrah
 
 
 
 
 
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the 
degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
School of Education 
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences 
May 2013
ORIGINALITY STATEMENT 
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my 
knowledge, it contains no materials previously published or written by another 
person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the 
award  of  any  other  degree  or  diploma  at  UNSW  or  any  other  educational 
institution,  except  where  due  acknowledgment  is  made  in  the  thesis.    Any 
contribution  made  to  the  research  by  others,  with  whom  I  have  worked  at 
UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis.  I also declare that 
the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to 
the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or 
in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. 
 
 
Signed: ........................................................................... 
 
Date:  
 
 
 
   
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AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT 
I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final 
officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred 
and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the results of the 
conversion to digital format. 
 
 
Signed: ........................................................................... 
 
Date: .................................................................................  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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DECLARATION 
This is to certify that: 
i.  The thesis comprises only my original work. 
ii.  Due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other materials 
used. 
iii.  The thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, 
figures, references and appendices. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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DEDICATION 
This thesis, and all my achievement and success, are dedicated to my mother, 
Salaha Ibrahim, and my father, Yahya Ali Al-Sadi, who have encouraged and 
aspired me to achieve the highest goals in everything in my life and who have 
provided care, supports and prayers throughout my studies.  I am also indebted 
to  my  lovely  wife,  Nourah  Ali  Asiri,  for  her  devotion,  patience  and 
encouragement, and also my lovely daughters, Al-Maha and Yarra, for their 
continuous supports and patience. 
 
   
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. 
The prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon him) said, He who would not be 
thankful people, he who will not be thankful to ALLAH”. 
During this long and challenging journey, several people have helped me with their 
time, advice, experiences, and patience. Thus, this is an opportunity to thank them. 
 
First  and  foremost,  I  would  like  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  my  supervisor, 
Professor Colin Evers, for his ongoing assistance, guidance, counselling and expertise 
during my research.  Professor Evers has been a brother, a friend, a teacher, and a 
supervisor throughout my entire candidature.  I am most thankful to my co-supervisor, 
Dr Michael Michell, for his support and direction throughout the entire process.  I really 
appreciate their criticisms and suggestions throughout the development of my thesis, 
and their support and guidance has enabled me to complete this thesis on time. 
 
My  thanks  and  appreciation  are  also  extended  to  my  study’s  panel  committee 
members, Professor Chris Davison, Professor Anne Burns and Dr Matthew Clarke, 
who offered invaluable suggestions throughout the discussion in every seminar.  I am 
also deeply grateful to the lecturers and students at both King Abdul Aziz and Arab 
Open universities who participated in the study.  Without them affording their valuable 
time  and generously  sharing  with  me  their  candid  thoughts  and  experiences,  this 
research would not have commenced in the first place.  I hope their efforts in lending 
their voices in this study will go some way in bringing about further positive changes to 
Saudi education.  Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank all staff and students 
at the School of Education who assisted in various and important ways towards the 
completion of this thesis. 
   
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ABSTRACT 
This thesis proposes a model for the teaching of critical thinking (CT) for secondary 
pre-service teacher education students studying in Saudi Arabian universities. This 
model is appropriate for Saudi Arabia because it was developed based on current 
Saudi practice in the context of recent reform. Since policy driven reforms launched in 
2006 and 2007, notably the Tatweer project and the Aafq project, promoting higher 
global standards in Saudi education, there has been an increasing emphasis on the 
promotion of critical thinking.  Numerous studies, however, have shown a lack of CT 
amongst secondary school students and teachers in Saudi Arabia, suggesting that CT 
oriented curricula and methods of instruction in Saudi Arabian teachers’ colleges have 
not yet been applied or taught to secondary pre-service teacher education students. 
Prompted by these observations, this research investigated lecturers’ knowledge of CT 
and its applications in secondary pre-service teacher education programs at two Saudi 
Arabian universities: King Abdul Aziz University and the Arab Open University. These 
investigations were delivered through two main qualitative case studies, each of which 
represented  a  university.  Each  case  study  consisted  of  in-depth  interviews  with 
lecturers and students at secondary pre-service teachers’ education programs, and 
relevant documents (university programs, policies and students’ assignments). Using 
Paul’s theory of CT and Vygotsky’s framework of spontaneous and scientific concepts 
to  gauge  levels  of  CT  knowledge  and  practice,  the  research  revealed  limited  CT 
knowledge and practice among lecturers and students in the investigated programs 
and  that  this  limitation  corresponded  with  the  absence  of  policies  promoting  the 
implementation of CT. In light of these findings, this research developed a model that 
provides  strategies  for  enhancing  the  teaching  and  learning  of  CT  skills  amongst 
secondary pre-service teacher education academics and students in Saudi universities. 
The proposed model highlights a more systematic approach towards enhancing CT in 
pre-service teacher education.  
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TABLE OF CONTENT 
Page 
 
ORIGINALITY STATEMENT  ii 
AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT  iii 
DECLARATION  iv 
DEDICATION                                                                                                      v 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  vi 
ABSTRACT                                                                                                     vii 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS  xii 
LIST OF TABLES  xiii 
LIST OF FIGURES  xiv 
 
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION  1 
1.1 Background and Significance of Study  1 
1.2 Purposes of the Study  11 
1.3 Research Questions  14 
1.4 Organization of the Thesis  15 
 
CHAPTER 2 : SAUDI EDUCATION SYSTEM:                                                      
A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW  18 
2.1 Overview  18 
2.2 Brief History and Philosophy of Education                                               
in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia  18 
2.2.1 The Path to Education Reform: the Tatweer Project  25 
2.3 Development of Tertiary Education in Saudi Arabia                                 
in the 20th Century  27 
2.4 Tertiary Education in Saudi Arabia in the 21st Century  33 
2.4.1 Afaq Project to Develop Higher Education  35 
2.4.2 The Function of the Tertiary Education in                           
Saudi Arabia  36 
2.4.3 King Abdul Aziz University  37 
2.5 Private Tertiary Education in Saudi Arabia  39
2.5.1 Arab Open University  39 
2.6 Teachers’ Colleges and Secondary Pre-service Teacher                     
Education Programs in Saudi Arabia  40 
2.6.1 Program in King Abdul Aziz University  41 
2.6.2 Program in Arab Open University  42 
2.7 Summary  43
 
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW  45 
3.1 Overview  45 
3.2 Critical Thinking and Its Development - the emergence                           
of critical thinking  46 
3.2.1 Critical Thinking Concepts in Psychology and                             
Philosophy: Why there is no consensus  51 
3.2.2 Why consensus is desirable  53 
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3.2.3 Contributions to the Concepts of Critical Thinking in 
Philosophy  55 
3.2.4 Contributions to the Concepts of Critical Thinking in 
Psychology  58 
3.3 Teaching and Learning Critical Thinking  66
3.3.1 The controversy surrounding learning and teaching                   
critical thinking  66 
3.3.2 Teaching Critical Thinking Skills  70 
3.4 Critical Thinking and Teacher Education  75
3.4.1 Critical Thinking in the Pre-service Teacher Education  78 
3.5 Educators’ Knowledge and Critical Thinking  88 
3.6 Understanding the Concept of Critical Thinking in Saudi Arabia  91 
3.6.1 Critical Thinking in Saudi Education  95 
3.7 Summary  103
 
CHAPTER 4: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL                 
CONSIDERATIONS  105 
4.1 Overview  105 
4.2 Theoretical Framework  105 
4.2.1 Paul’s Framework for Teaching Critical Thinking  118 
4.2.2 Dividing the Theoretical Framework: Critical Thinking 
Knowledge and Critical Thinking Practice  119 
4.2.2.1 Critical Thinking Knowledge (CTK)  120 
4.2.2.2 Critical Thinking Practice (CTP)  124 
4.2.2.3 Established Effective Critical Thinking                         
Strategies  125 
4.2.3 The Development of CTK and CTP: Vygotsky’s                        
Theory of Concept Development  130 
4.2.3.1 Scientific Concepts, Pseudoconcepts, and 
Complexes  130 
4.2.3.1 Using Vygotsky’ Theory of Concept                      
Development as a Measure of CTK                                      
and CTP Development  133 
4.2.3.2 An integrated framework for the development                        
of CTK and CTP: Vygotsky Meets Paul  134 
4.3 Research Methodology: Qualitative Research  138
4.3.1 Research Strategy: Multiple Case Studies  140 
4.3.2 Data Sources  141 
4.3.2.1 Lecturers  142 
4.3.2.2 Students  146 
4.3.3 Data Collection Techniques  149 
4.3.3.1 Individual Semi-structured Interviews  149 
4.3.3.2 Focus Group Interviews  152 
4.3.3.3 Document Analysis  155 
4.3.4 Research Ethics  160 
4.3.5 Data Management  160 
4.3.5.1 Transcriptions and translations  161 
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4.3.5.2 Data analysis  163 
4.3.6 Validation  167 
4.4 Summary  172
 
CHAPTER 5: UNDERSTANDING LECTURERS’ KNOWLEDGE AND 
PERCEPTIONS OF CRITICAL THINKING  174 
5.1 Overview  174 
5.2 Lecturers’ knowledge  182 
5.2.1 Understanding and Defining Critical Thinking:                        
Diverse but Limited Views  184 
5.2.2 Knowledge of Critical Thinking Skills: Uncertainties                        
and Misconceptions  198 
5.2.3 Knowledge of Critical Thinking Dispositions:                    
Conflation of CT Dispositions with CT Skills  206 
5.3 Lecturers’ Perceptions  215
5.3.1 Lecturers’ Perceptions of Their Understanding of                      
CT: Teaching Experiences and Western Influences  221 
5.3.2 Impediments to Critical Thinking Knowledge and                     
How to Overcome Them: Cultural and Educational                
Norms  229 
5.3.3 University, Students, and Lecturers: Further                     
Impediments to CTK  233 
5.3.4 Overcoming Impediments to Attaining CT:                        
Teaching the Teacher—an Urgent Priority  240 
5.4 Discussion  245
 
CHAPTER 6 : LECTUERS’ CRITICAL THINKING PRACTICE (CTP)  260 
6.1 Overview  260 
6.2 Lesson Plans based on Critical Thinking  262 
6.2.1 ‘Critical thinking is important…but rarely                           
employed as an instructional objective’  262 
6.2.2 Teaching critical thinking is essential: “but                              
we have not been asked to teach it specifically”.  271 
6.3 Lecturers’ Strategies for Teaching CT  275
6.3.1 Use of Questioning Strategy  275 
6.3.2 Use of Group Discussion  278 
6.3.3 Use of Assignment Questions and Feedback  280 
6.4 The Impediments to Teaching Critical Thinking  289 
6.5 Discussion  295 
 
 
CHAPTER 7: UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF 
LEARNING CRITICAL THINKING  305 
7.1 Overview  305 
7.2 What Students Know or Presume to Know about CT  306 
7.2.1 Students’ Concept of CT: ‘A Means of Resolving                       
Life’s Problems and Criticism’  307 
x
Description:I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final  The prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon him) said, He who would not be  pre-service teacher education students studying in Saudi Arabian .. including De Bono, a leading US expert in teaching thinking skills, and Robert