Syria 3000 to 300 BC: A Handbook of Political History

136 Pages·1992·15.532 MB·English

by  Klengel, Horst

Horst Klengel
-
SYRIA
3000 to 300 B.C.
A Handbook of Political History
l}kademie Verlag
PREFACE
The intention of this handbook is to give information on all pertinent textual sources
available for the various periods of Syrian history from the emergence of the first
states on Syrian territory to the period when Alexander the Great conquered Syria.
At the same time an outline history tries to evaluate this material as far as political
to
history is concerned, citing the sources and referring the published scholarly
discussion of texts and data. Of course, the broad field of relevant sources and the
long period to be dealt with render it impossible to discuss all texts in detail or to
solve chronological and historical problems which are still under discussion. Thus,
the following pages merely offer an introduction to this complex material and ask the
interested reader to consult the e~tions and publications quoted in the current text
or in the footnotes.
The book was prepared in the course of several years and completed according to
the most current editions of texts and their interpretation. Nevertheless, it was not
I always possible to integrate into the manuscript all additions and assumptions,
especially with regard to the new inf<?rmation as given by the progressing edition of
archives. But it is hoped that the bastf sources and literature are to be found in these
pages. The English text has been corrected by Mr. Phillip Williams.
This volume is dedicated to my wife, who shared in its inception, and whose
criticism helped me in many ways. Thanks are also due to the publisher for his
acceptance of the manuscript and for the final printing.
Berlin, June 1991 Horst Klengel
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS AND REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
I. THEEARLYBRONZEAGE .. . . . ... ... ...... ........ ...... .. . . . . . .. .. .. 21
1. First written evidence pertaining to Syria and the period of the Ebla archives . . . . 21
a} Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
b) Outline history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
I
2. Syria from the Ebla archives to the end of the 3rd millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
I
a} Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
b) Outline history ............" '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
II. THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1. The establishment of Amorite political rule in Syria {c. 2000-1800 B.C.} ...... . 39
a) Sour~es . : .................. ;;;.=.: .••••••••••........ : ..•..•.••••••••.• 39
b} Outline history ............• ~ .................. ·. .................. . 41
2. The period of the kingdom ofYarnhad {c.1800-1600 B.c.) .................. . 44
I a) Sources ........................................................... . 44
b) Outline history .................................................... . 49
(1} The dynasty ofHalab/Yarnhad .................................... . 49
(2) Other Syrian principalities and political centres ...................... . 65
<:. ................................... .
{a} Qatna ................. 65
{b) Karkatnish ................................................. . 70
. {c) Urshum .................................................... . 74
{d) Ugarit ..................................................... . 77
. {e) Gubla •...........................•........••••..•.......... 79
' ~' ~
3. The invasion of northern Syria by the Hittites ............................. . 80
IlL THE LATE BRONZE AGE ........................................... . 84
1. The period of Mittanian and Egyptian domination {c.1600-1350 B.C.) ........ . 84
a) Sources ........................................................... . 84
b) Outline history ........................•............................ 85
f:
t'\
10 ~Contents
2. Syria at the time of Egyptian and Hittite overlordship (c.1350-1200 B.C.} . . . . . . 100 ABBREVIATIONS AND
a} Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
b) Outline history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 REFERENCES
(1 ) The interference of Hatti and Egypt in Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 1O Q.
{2) The Syrian states, 15th to 12th centuries B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The major kingdoms of the north: . . . • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 120
(a) Karkantish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
(b) Halab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 128
(c) Ugarit . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
The major kingdoms of the central plains: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
(a} Nuhashe and Niya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
(b) Qatna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Between Hatti and Egypt: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 A Number of (unpublished) Mari texts
(a) Qidshu/Qadesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 AAAS Annales archeologiques arabes syriennes
(b) Amurru ...........- :-......................................•. : 160 AAS Annales archeologiques de Syrie (former title of AAAS}
Urban centres of the south . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 AbB Altbabylonische Briefe in Umschrift und Obersetzung, hrsgg. von F.RKraus.
ABoT Ankara Arkeoloji Muzesinde bulunan Bogazkoy tabletleri
IV. THE IRON AGE • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 181 Ac An Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Budapest
AcSum Acta Sumerologica
1. Ethnic and political changes at the beginning of the Iron Age (c.1200-1000 B.C.) 181
AEM Archives epistolaires de Mari (=ARM XXVI)
a) Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . 181
AfO Archiv fur Orientforschung
b) Outline history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
AIPHOS Annuaire de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales et Slaves
2. Syria in the Early Iron Age, c.l000-745 B.C.: The development of new political AIUON Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale Napoli
entities and the Assyrian aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 AJA American Joumal'of Archaeology
a} Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 AIT Number of Alalakh tablets
b) Outline history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 ANET Pritchard,J.B.(ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament,
(1} General development............................................. 191 Princeton 1950 (1955, 1969)
1
(a) The rise of the Phoenician, Aramaean, and "Late Hittite" states (10th AnSt Anatolian Studies
century B.C.} . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Veroffentlichungen zur Kultur und Ge-
(b) The defence of the Syrian states against the Assyrians until the reign of schichte des Alten ®ents · ·
Tiglath-pileser ill {c.900-745 B.C.} . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Ao F Altorientalische Forschungen
(2} Regional political development ..............•............•..•..... ' 202 AOS American Oriental Series
(a) Tyre and the urban centres of the littoral . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 AR Breasted,J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Chicago 1906-1907
(b) Damascus and southern Syria • . . . . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 ARAB see LuckenbilL D.D.
(c) Hamath and the central plains . • . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . • • . 212 ARES Archivi Reali di Ebla, Studi
{d) Sam'al, Bit Agusi and Kark:amish in the north .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . 214 ARET Archivi Reali di Ebla, '{ssti
ARI Grayson, A.K., Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, I-II, Wiesbaden 1972 and 1976
3. Syria under Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian rule {c.745-330} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
ARM Archives royales de Mari
a) Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
ArOr Archiv Orientilni
b) Outline history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
ARRIM Annual Report. The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Project
{1) The Neo-Assyrian period . .. .. • • . . • . • . . . . .. . . • . . . . • . . • • .. • . .. . . .. • 222
AS Assyriological Studies ,
(2} The Neo-Babylonian period • . • • . . • • . . • • . . . . . • • • . . • • . . . • . . . . • • • • • • • 230
ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte
(3} Syria under the rule of the Achaemenids . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
AUCf Sigrist, M., Neo-Sumerian Account Texts in the Horn Archaeological Mu"'
seum {Andrews University Cuneiform Texts, 1) , Berrien Springs 1985
V. INDEXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
BaM Baghdader Mitteilungen
1. Text references {major series} . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 241 BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BihAr The Biblical Archaeologist
2. Divine and personal names . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
BM Number of Tablets in the British Museum
3. Geographical {and ethnic) names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 BMB Bulletin du Musee de Beyrouth
12 Abbreviations and 'References Abbreviations and References 13
BN Biblische Notizen KTU M.Dietrich-O.Loretz-].Sanmartin, Die keilalphabetischen Texte au s U garit, I
B0 Bibliotheca Orientalis (AOAT 24/1), Kevelaer/Neukirchen-Vluyn 1976
CAH The Cambridge Ancient History KUB Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazkoi
CRAIBL Comptes rendus, Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres MAIS Missione archeologica italiana in Siria
CTH E.Laroche, Catalogue des textes hittites, Paris 1971 MARl Mari. Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires
EA Publication number of Amarna texts MDOG Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft
EAZ Ethnographisch-Archaologische Zeitschrift MEE Materiali epigrafici di Ebla
FAOS Freiburger altorientalische Studien MIO Mitteilungen des Instituts fiir Orientforschung
FF Forschungen und Fortschritte . MUSJ Melanges de l'Universire Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth
FHG E.Laroche, Fragments hittites de Geneve, in: RA 45 {1951) and 46 (1952) MVAG Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatisch-Aegyptischen Gesellschaft
Forrer, Provinzeinteilung Forrer, E., Die Provinzeinteilung des assyrischen Reiches, MVN Materiali per il vocabolario neosumerico . . .
Leipzig 1920 NABU N.A.B.U. Nouvelles assyriologiques breves et utilitarres
Frayne, Old Babylonian Period Frayne, D.R., The Royal Insriptions of Mesopotamia, OA Oriens Antiquus
Early Periods, VoL4: Old Babylonian Period {2003-1595 BC}, Toronto 1990 OIP Oriental Institute Publications
Gaal 1982 Gaal, E., in: Annales Universitatis Scientiarum Budapestinensis, Sectio Histo- OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia. Analecta
rica XXII, 1982 OLP Orientalia Lovaniensia. Periodica
Grayson, Chronicles Grayson, A.K., Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, Locust Valley OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung
N.Y.1975 Or Orientalia
GS Klengel, H., Geschichte Syriens im 2Jahrtausend v.u.Z., I-III, Berlin 1965- PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly
1970 Porter-Moss, Bibliography Porter, B. - Moss, R.L.B., Topo~p~cal BibliograRhy of
Heick, Beziehungen W.Helck, Die Beziehungen Agyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs, and Paintmgs. VII: Nubta, the
2.Jahrtausend v. Chr., Wiesbaden 1962 (2nd edition 1971) Deserts, and Outside Egypt. Oxford 1951
HSAO Heidelberger Studien zum Alten Orient PRU Le Palais royal dpgarit
HT Hittite Texts in the Cuneiform Character from Tablets in the British Museum, RA Revue d'assyriologie
London 1920 RHA Revue hittite et asianique
!BoT Istanbul Arkeoloji Miizelerinde bulunan Bogazkoy Tablecleri RGTC Repertoire geographique des textes cune~~es .. .
IE] Israel Exploration Journal RIA Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderastattschen Archaologte
1M Inventory numbers of the Iraq Museum Baghdad RS Excavation numbers of the Ras Shamra tablets
lOS Israel Oriental Studies 1 RSF Rivista degli studi &nici
IRSA Sollberger, E.-Kupper,J.-R., Inscriptions royales sumeriennes et akkadiennes, RSI Rivista storica it:aliMla
Paris 1971
RSO Rivista degli studi orientali
JANES The Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society SAK Studien zur altagyptischen Kultur
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society SBA Saarbriicker Beitrage zur Altertumskunde
JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt SEb Studi Eblaiti
JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies SEL Studi epigrafici e linguistici sui Vicino Oriente ~rico . .
JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Simons, Lists Simons,]., HanWook for the Study ofEgypttan Topographical L1sts Relat-
JEOL Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-egyptisch Gezelschap Ex Oriente Lux ing to Western Asia, Leiden 1937
JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient SMEA Studi micenei ed egeo-anatolici
Jirku, Listen Jirku, A., Die agyptischen Listen palastinensischer und syrischer Ortsnamen, SSEA Journal Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquity Journal
Leipzig 193 7 StBoT Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten
]S Journal ofJ ewish Studies . . TCM Textes cuneiformes de Mari
JNES -Journal of Near Eastern Studies · THeth. Texte der Hethiter
KAH Keilschrifturkunden aus Assur historischen Inhalts, I-II, Leipzig 1911 and 1922 TFR Terqa Final Reports
{WVDOG 16, 37) TSSI Gibson,J.C.L., Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions, I-III, Oxford
KAI Donner, H.-Rollig, W., Kanaanaische und ararnaische Inschriften, I-III, Wies- 1971-1982
baden 1971-1976 (3rd edition) TUAT O.Kaiser (ed.), Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments
KAJ Keilschrifttexte aus Assurjuristischen Inhalts, Leipzig 1927 {WVDOG 50) UF Ugarit-Forschungen
KAV Keilschrifttexte aus Assur verschiedenen Inhalts, Leipzig 1920 {WVDOG 35) Urk. Urkunden des agyptischen Altertums, 4.Abt.
KBo Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazkoi VAB Vorderasiatische Bibliothek
14 Abbreviations and References
VBoT Gotze, A., Verstreute Boghazkoi-Texte, Marburg 1930 INTRODUCTION
VDI Vestnik drevnej istorii
vo Vicino Oriente
vs
Vorderasiatische Schriftdenkmaler der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin
VT Vetus Testamentum
wo Die Welt des Orients
WVDOG Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft
WZK.M Wiener Zeitschrift zur Kunde des Morge~andes
YOS Yale Oriental Series
ZA Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archaologie
ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins
Two decennia have elapsed since the publication oft he last volume oft he "Geschich
te Syriens im 2Jahrtausend v.u2." {abbr.: GS) in 1970. In the meantime archaeologi
cal and philological research has considerably enlarged the source-base for the
history of ancient Syria. Furthermore historical investigations of Syria during the
period between c. 3000 and 300 B.C. have contributed to a better understanding of
the evidence available so far. Therefore it seemed justified to compile and to re
evaluate all the pertinent textual material and sources for a political history of Syria,
though in a different manner to that of the GS volumes. It is now intended to place at
the reader's disposal a kind of handbook which refers to archives and major sources
pertaining to the various peqods of Syrian history and which also offers an outline
history with footnotes pointing to relevant texts and to the scholarly discussion. This
presentation exceedes the chronological parameters of GS by including the third
millennium - as far as relevant textual sources are available - and the first millen
nium up to the conquest ofS yria by Alexander the Great. Thus the period covered in
this volume spans more than two millennia.
The special concern of thi~handbook is political hiStory in a restricted sense.
Although the textual evidence for each period will be referred to in full. at least by
mentioning the archives, the historical outline will make use of those texts which
bear directly on political history, i.e. the internal situation and the external relations of
Syrian political entities. The social and economic background of these relations
cannot be treated in extenso, and both the cultural development and the religious
beliefs have to remain outside thd scope of the text.
As the bulk of pertinent sources comes from the second millennium, an overlap
with volumes I and ll ofG S cannot be avoided. Contrary to GS 1-11, the sources are
not quoted in detail or with their original text. It was not intended to replace GS in
this respect, but to give an intrqduction to the sources and the political history
without discussing all details and problems t. It was also impossible to refer to all the
1 It is hoped that the literature mentioned in the footnotes will furnish the necessary
• discussion of details which was not possible to insert into this text. In generaL the
compilation ofp hilological treatments ofc uneiform texts as given by R.Borger, Handbuch
der Keilschriftliteratur, I-III, Berlin 1967-1975, should be consulted. C£ furthermore the
current bibliographies in the journals "Orientalia" (Rome) and "Archiv fur Orientfor
schung" (Vienna).
16 Introduction Introduction 17
cuneiform editions ofs ources mentioned in the various chapters oft his book, but it is linear system for Semitic languages as, e.g., Aramaic and Phoenician.4 The texts
hoped that the editions will become accessible by making use oft he literature quoted written in this script are mostly lost because they were normally written on perish
in the text and the footnotes. able material such as papyrus and leather (parchment). Biblical traditions and also the
There is a lack of information with regard to some periods or regions ..which accounts of Greek and Roman authors become important as far as the 1st millen
renders it impossible to give an impression of the relevant political history. Besides, it nium and especially the period immediately before the conquest of Syria by Alex
is chronology which poses the most difficult problems. As in GS the so-called ander are concerned. This multiplicity of scripts and languages pertaining to the
"middle chronology" is applied to the periods before the second half of the 2nd history ofa ncient Syria renders difficult their adequate evaluation by a single author;
millennium. Although the author is well aware of the arguments advanced in favour he has to rely - at least partly - on the results of specialized philological study
of the "low" or "long" chronologies,Z it nevertheless seems appropriate to give achieved by others.
absolute dates according to the "middle" chronology. Up to now there is no definite A political history is not the place to discuss in extenso the natural setting and all the
and generally accepted proof for the accuracy of any of these systems. As far as the resources available in the region in question. 5 The following remarks therefore focus
period after the middle oft he 2nd millennium is concerned, dates follow the reduced on those factors which have had - or could have had - influenced the political
absolute chronology, while absolute dating of the Egyptian pharaohs, still under development of Syria. First of all, Syria is understood as the area between the
discussion, follows as far as possible the dates published byJ . vonBeckerath in 1984.3 Mediterranean Sea and the Euphrates or the Syrian desert, the plain of Gaziantep
Thus, absolute dates, if available at all, are to be used with caution although they resp. the southern slopes of the Taurus and a fictitious line running from south of
cannot be omitted. More importance is attributed to relative chronology, especially Tyre to Dera'a, nearly identical with the present southern borders of Lebanon and
to synchronisms. Syria. This geographical position between the sea and Mesopotamia, between Ana
Another problem to be considered here is how to organize the two millennia of tolia and Palestine has influenced Syrian history decisively by facilitating its involve
Syrian history treated in this volume. The archaeological system, i.e. a division into . ment in the political development of powers as Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, Hatti
the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age, does not fully respond to the needs of and Hurri-Mittani. At the same time it makes difficult the study of Syrian history
political history even if subdivided into shorter phases. The same is true for a system because of the great diversity of sources.
distinguishing between periods called "Proto-Syrian", "Early Syrian", "Old Syrian", Syria was equally attractive and involved from an economic point of view. It was
"Middle Syrian", "Neo-Syrian" and "Late Syrian" in congruence with periods of part of the "Fertile Crescent" with wide plains where dry-farming was effective
Mesopotamian history. Therefore it seems adequate to prefer a division according to under the condition that the soil received more than 300 millimetres of rain a year;
the political development of Syria itsel£ although there is an inherent weakness too: , this was the case especially in the north and in the central part of Syria. 6 The coastal
Syria was neither a political entity ofi ts own (i.e. with a sequence of dynasties ruling mountains were rich in timber, such as cedars, cypresses and pines, which were in
all the country) nor are all periods evidenced sufficiently by textual material from great demand in Mesopot£,mia and Egypt as well. Wine. and olives, growing also in
Syrian sites. The chapters of this volume are therefore to be understood as a the hilly areas ofS yria, everton stony soils, were important exports as well. The latter
compromise between an account of purely Syrian history and the history of the is true furthermore for products of specialized handicrafts, for example (purple
neighbouring countries which intervened in Syria and left written evidence behind. dyed) textiles, furniture, metal-work, glass, etc. Foreign powers tried to obtain these
This situation is also reflected by the diversity of the relevant textual material in Syrian products not only by trade but also by military force, i.e. as booty or tribute.
both script and language. Since the 3rd millennium the most important centres of The woodlands of Syria were, it seems, by far more extensive than at present and
Syria utilized either the Mesopotamian cuneiform script applying it to their own perhaps contributed to a more humid climate with possibilities ofs ettlement in areas
(Semitic) language by developing this system ofw riting into an "alphabetic" one later where the steppe now dominates. There is no indication of a drastic change in the
on, or the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Further textual evidence comes from those neigh
bouring countries which conquered Syria at least partially and handed down perti
nent inscriptions in their own languages. A "hieroglyphic" script, used in Syria from 4 For the problem of writing systems and languages of the historical sources pertaining to
the late 2nd millennium and originating in Anatolia, has been proved as a writing Syria c£ H.Klengel, Das Altc;rtum 35 (1989) 150-157. .
5 In general, c£ E. Wirth, Syrien. Eine geographische Landeskunde, Darmstadt 1971. This
system for the Luwian language. At the same time first steps were made to develop a
handbook concerns the territory of the Syrian Arab Republic, i.e. includes parts of
northern Mesopotamia and excludes the Lebanon. Many references to the natural condi
tions ofa ncient Syria are given; c£ also W.C.Brice (eel.), The Environmental History oft he
Near and Middle East Since the Last Ice Age, London-New York-San Francisco 1978,
2 C£, most recently, the discussion in P.Alstrom (eel.), High, Middle or Low?, Gothenburg and GS I 9-14.
1987. 6 C£ L.Milano, Dialoghi di archeologia 3 {1 981) 85-121 and (region ofEbla) A. de Maigret,
3 ]. von Beckerath, Handbuch der agyptischen Konigsnamen, Berlin 1984. in: L.Cagni (ed.), ll bilinguismo a Ebla, Napoli 1984, 329-335. •
18 Introduction Introduction 19
climate during the period in question, i.e. from the 3rd millennium onwards, but the millennium, i.e. the acerarnic Neolithic.10 There was a long continuity in dry
annual quantities of rain£ill could oscillate and bring about an extension or with farming and settlement, evidenced by archaeological excavations, which at the same
drawal of the settled and cultivated areas.7 The wealth of the coastal mount;l.ins in time reflect changes and discontinuities with regard to settled areas and settlement
timber is mentioned in inscriptions from both Egypt und Mesopotamia; the Amanus patterns, the emergence of urban centres ("Urban revolution"), and a development
and, later on, the Lebanon became the typiCal "cedar forests" oft he literary tradition. s in productivity, which was connected with a progressing division oflabour. Fortified
Another base for Syrian economy was trade, both because of the geographical towns and walled areas within them are known in Syria from the Chalcolithic, and
position and its economic productivity. Participating in a long-distance trade in the differentiation of society is corroborated by the type and the inventory of the
precious stones from about the middle of the 3rd millennium, Syria became the individual houses. During the Early Bronze Age urban settlements increased in
centre for inter-regional exchange especially during the early 2nd millennium when number and size; regional systems with a central place emerged, and some of the
the Aegean and Cyprus emerged as partners.9 At the threshold between the 2nd and cities began to appear in textual sources (as Gubla and Ebla). A hierarchic structure
the 1st millennia the coastal region of Syria, Phoenicia, began to develop into the not only between the centres, but also between them and their rural territory, was
"mother country" of a system of trading colonies, thus enlarging the economic first indicated by archaeological evidence and later corroborated by textual witness.
horizon of Western Asia considerably. Syria was crossed by important trade routes, In the Early Bronze Age, all cultivable territories of Syria were settled by towns or
the course of which can be detected from the textual evidence and the material of villages, and the density of settlement might have contributed to conflicts between
foreign origin discovered in the urban centres. The relief of Syria, especially the them - one of the factors favouring the emergence of a local aristocracy which
mountain ranges along the sea-shore, gave access to the harbours mainly by two exercised political power and was represented by a "king". The texts from the
"gaps" - the gap of Horns between Lebanon and Jebel Anseriya (near the Akkar archives ofEbla in northern Syria give a first impression oft his political development
plain), opening the way to Gubla!Byblos and other harbours, and a route crossing and of the early state.
the lower Orontes and leading to Ugarit in the north. The most important entrance
into the interior of Syria from the coast of the Mediterranean was certainly the first
one, also used by the armies of the Egyptian pharaohs of the early 18th dynasty.
Thus, the natural conditions of Syria favoured contact and exchange but also
attracted foreign armies. The difference in political and economic orientation be
tween the coastal and inland centres augmented Syrian polycentrisrn.
The political history outlined in this volume starts with the Early Bronze Age (3rd
millennium), when a stratified society organized in early states appears for th, first
time in written sources originating from or pertaining to Syria. The development of
the state as a political entity and the relations between these states and their rulers are
the basic topic of the history of Syria such set forth in the following chapters. Other
aspects of the topic as the patterns an4 density of settlement, social and economic
development etc. are taken into consideration only when they affect political history
in this narrow sense.
At the time when Syrian history entered the written sources, several prehistoric
millennia had already elapsed. The earliest settlements are known from the 8th
7 C£ W.Haude, Die Erde 94 (1963) 281-312. This could stimulate "waves" of nomadic
intrusions, c£ H.Klengel, ArOr 30 (1962) 585-596 and MLiverani, OA 7 (1968) 77-89.
8 M.B.Rowton, AS 16 (Fs B.Landsberger), Chicago 1965, 370-382; M.B.Rowton,JNES 26
(1967) 261-277; MW.Mikesell, The Geographical Review 59 (1969) 1-28 (deforesta
tion of the Lebanon); J.P.Brown, The Lebanon and Phoenicia, 1, Beirut 1969 (ancient 10 A survey oft he architectural remains ofS yria from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age
sources). and their bearing on the knowledge of social development is given by E.Lindemeyer,
9 H.Klengel, Handel und Handler im alten Orient, Leipzig 1979,61 f[ and 132 fE; SMEA Untersuchungen zur Siedlungsgeschichte Syriens vom 8. bis.Ende des 3.Jahrtausends
16 (1975) 201-220; EAZ 19 (1978) 211-225; SMEA 24 (1984) 7-19. (Dissertation AdW der DDR, 1989), forthcoming.
I. THE EARLY BRONZE AGE
1. First written evidence pertaining to Syria
and the period of the Ebla archives
a) Sources.
Prior to the archives of Ebla (c£ below) which concern the social and economic
development at least in northern Syria, some textual-information exists from Syria
itselfa nd from Egypt The Dutch excavations onJ ebel Aroda, on the western bank of
the Euphrates, have discovered some clay tablets dating to the late Uruk period of
Mesopotamia. They contain economic details but attest to the use of the Sumerian
measuring system known from southern Mesopotamia, although they give no
information as to the political situation.
..... G.van DrieL in: J.Margueron (ed.}, Le Moyen Euphrate. Zone de contacts et
d'echanges, Leiden 1980, 75 fE; c£ G. van Driel- C. van Driel-Murray,
Akkadica 12 (1979) 2-28. For the tablets G.van DrieL in: G.van Driel
Th.J.H.Krispijn-MStol-K.R. Veenhof (eds.), Zikir sumim (Fs. F.R.Kraus),
Leiden 1982, 12-25.
Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions on 42 various objects from Gubla!Byblos
mention the names ofE gyptian pharaohs (4th to 6th dynasties) and ofs ome officials.
The earliest known name of a pharaoh is that of Chasechemui (end of the 2nd
dynasty, c. 2670}.1 A:J offering disc bears an inscription of a scribe of the royal
carpenters. From th& 4th dynasty onwards (c. 2600 f£) the names of Egyptian
pharaohs appear more frequently in these inscriptions from the Syrian harbour town.
..,.. MChehab, BMB 22 (1969) 1-47; c£ W.Helck, Beziehungen (1971) 4 f£ and
UF 11 (1979) 357-363.
Egyptian texts from the Nile .v alley itself refer to an expansion of Egyptian
influence into the eas~ern delta during the period of the 5th and 6th dynasties
(c. 2475-2195}, and als~ to the import of timber, obviously from Gubla, since the
time of the Thinites. The so-called Snofru annals {Urk. I 236) mention 40 ships
bringing a special species of timber, evidently from the Lebanon. Syrian personal or
place names are not yet given; they begin to appear during the time of the 6th
dynasty. ~ . .
..... W.Helck, Beziehungen (1971} 12 f£ and UF 11 (1979} 357-363.
Besides this rather poor inscriptional evidence there is rich archaeological data,
important in political history to determine the level of social development and
cultural contacts. It indicates a rather dense settlement and a progressing
1 As already mentioned above (Introduction}, all absolute dates concerning Egyptian history
are according to J. von Beckerath, Handbuch der agypti.schen Konigsnarnen, Berlin 1984.
22
Tlie Early Bronze Age The period of the Ebla archives 23
urbanisation, with special reference to northern and central Syria and the region on the G".6 The destruction of the "Palace G" and the end of the Ebla archives is now
Euphrates.2
attributed to the military activities of Sargon of Akkad, although there is no definite
The discovery of the archives of Ebla (Tell Mardikh), about 55 kilometres southwest of
proofo f this at present.7 Names ofa t least three rulers ofEbla, govemin~ the town at
Halab/A leppo and located in the fertile plain of North Syria, supplied for the first time a great
the period of the archives, are mentioned in the texts; i.e. the Ebla archives seem to
many texts from Syria itsel£
have covered not more than three generations.a For the time being it would be best
.... For the excavations and their results c£ P. Matthiae, Ebla. Un irnpero ritrovato,
to place the archives into the period about 2400 B.C.
Torino 1977, c£ also G. Pettinato, Ebla. Un irnpero inciso nell'argilla, Milano
The language oft he texts, now called "Eblaic" or "Eblaite", represents an early step
1979. The study of the texts brought about many corrections to both mono
within the long development of Semitic languages and belongs to the north{west)
graphs, especially with regard to the historical evaluation of the material.
branch of this family, related to Old Akkadian and later Amorite.9 The system of
Although the scholarly discussion is still going on, already hundreds of articles
syllabic cuneiform writing was borrowed from pre-Sargonic Mesopotamia, but a
have attributed to the Ebla problem, c£ the current "Keilschriftbibliographie"
(O rientalia) and the bibliography oy M.Baldacci and F.Pomponio for the years longer use or development of the script is not yet attested.10_ . .
The contents of the texts are - in the overwhelming maJonty - econormc and
1966-1986, in: L.Cagni (ed.),Ebla 1975-1985. Dieci anni di studi lirtguistici e
administrative, and one can hypothesise that economic needs led to the reception
filologici, Napoli 1987, 429-456. A revised, though not always convincing
.,' and adaptation of a system of writing at Ebla.tl
summary is given by G.Pettinato, Ebla. Nuovi orizzonti della storia, Milano
'
.... G.Pettinato, Catalogo dei testi cuneiformi di Tell Mardikh-Ebla {MEE 1),
1986; c£ now, most recently, the revised edition ofPM atthiae, Ebla. Un irnpero
?nl!,
ritrovato, Torino 1989. Napoli 1979. The designation of the texts and their classific:ation is. . t~ be
The cuneiform teXts, c.15000 tablets or fragments of tablets, were found in the adopted with some reservatioiL Most of the texts charactenzed as histon~
or "historical-administrative" (c £ p.XXVIII £) are better understood as admin
years 1974 -1976 in an architectural context now called "Palace G" at three findspots:
In the northwest wing oft his central administrative building (archive L2586), in two j istrative or economic texts; c£ also B.Kienast-W.Waetzoldt, in: C.H.Gordon
rooms at the southern portico of the so-called "court of audience" {archives L2712
and L2769) and at the eastern portico of the same court (archive L2875). At the
southern periphery of Palace G a secondary depot of cuneiform tablets was discov 6 G. Scandone-Mitthiae, SEb 113-4 (1979) 33-43 and in: H.J. Nissen-]. Renger (eds.),
ered. 3 Once the tablets were kept on wooden shelves which were burnt and broken ! Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn, Berlin 1982, 125-130. The discrepancy between
this inscription ofPepi I and the chronology of the Akkad period could be solved by a
down during the catastrophe that put an end to this phase {Early Bronze IV A= Tell
lowered chronology of the Akkad dynasty as proposed by]. Boese, WZKM 74 {198~)
Mardikh II B 1) of the "acropolis". The date of the texts is still disputed and depends
33-55. A vase bearing an inscription ofking Chefren {4th dynasty ofEgypt), excavated m
mainly on the date of the destruction of the "Palace G".4 Graphic characteristiq and
the context oft he "~alace G", has no special importance for the discussion of the absolute
also the contents of several literary compositions allow comparisons to be drawn
l date of the Ebla t~ts. ·
with the texts excavated at Tell Abu Salabikh in southern Iraq, dated about 2600 7 The first reference to Ebla in Mesopotamian texts comes from Sargon of Akkad; he
B.C.5 These texts give a terminus post quem for the Ebla material. On the other hand, mentions the capture oft his city in one ofhis inscriptions (c £ below); c£ P. Ma~~: Ebla.
there is an inscription ofp haraoh Pepi I, which was discovered in the debris of"Palace · Un impero ritrovato, Torino 1989, 241 f£ and 302, who proposes three posstbilines for
the date of the destruction: By an unknown ruler before Sargon, by Sargon of Akka~ or
by Nararn-Sin ofA kkad. Matthiae gives preference to Sargon; for the problem of dann~
the texts c£ also D. ~.:..Owen-R. Veenker, in: L. Cagni (ed.), Ebla 1975-1985, Napoli
!'l·
1987,265 IL 11 (earlier date) andA.Archi,in: C. H. Gordon-G.A. Rendsburg- H.
2 For the surveys c£ M Liverani, MAIS 164, Roma 1965, 107-133;]. C. Courtois, Syria 50 Winter (eds.), Eblaitica. Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, I, Wmona
(1973) 53-99 (Orontesvalley);J.Matthers etal., lraq40 (1978) 119-162 (Afrin valley); R. i Lake 1987, 132-136; P. Matthiae, in: P. Astrom {ed.), High, Middle or Low?,3, Gothen
Maxwell-Hyslop et al., PEQ 74 (1942) 8-40 (plain ofJabbul);J. and L. S. Braidwood, burg 1989, 163-169.
Excavations in the Plain ofA ntioch, 1: The Earlier Assemblages, Phases A-J, Chicago 1960; -~ 8 C£ P. Michalowski,JAOS 105 (1985) 293-302, esp. 296 ("nor mor~ than one gene~­
A. Archi-P. E. Pecorella-M. Salvini, Gaziantep e Ia sua regione, Roma 1971; A. Kuschke, tion") and A. Archi, ARES I, Roma 1988, 205-225; c£ also M. G. Btga-F. Pomporuo,
l
in: SBA 3 (1966) 15-30 (Biqa'); R. Hachmann, in: SBA 4 ( 1970) 71-86 (Biqa'); A. Kuschke NABU 1987/106 (Ishar-Damu as a further "king" ofEbla).
- S. Mittmann-U. Miiller, Archaologischer Survey in der nordlichen Biqa', Herbst 1972, 9 L. Cagni (ed.), LalinguadiEbla, Napoli 1981 P. Fronzaroli (ed.), Srudies on the l~gua~e
Wiesbaden 1976.
of Ebla, Firenze 1984. For the evidence of personal names c£ M. Krebernik, Die
3 C£ P. Matthiae, Ebla. Un impero ritrovato, Torino 1989,222 f£
Personennamen der Ebla-Texte, Berlin 1988.
4 A summary of the current discussion is given by P. Matthiae, Ebla. Un impero ritrovato, 10 M. Krebernik, AfO 32 (1985) 53-59; H. Klengel, in: H. Hauptmann-H. Waetzoldt
Torino 1989,241 f£
(eds.), Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft von Ebla, Heidelberg 1988,245-251.
5 R. D. Biggs, Inscriptions from Tell Abu Salabikh (OIP 99), Chicago-London 1974. 11 C£ H. Klengel (note 10).