Table Of ContentSpringer Tracts in Civil Engineering
Sašo Medved
Suzana Domjan
Ciril Arkar
Sustainable
Technologies
for Nearly Zero
Energy Buildings
Design and Evaluation Methods
Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering
Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering (STCE) publishes the latest developments
in Civil Engineering—quickly, informally and in top quality. The series scope
includes monographs, professional books, graduate textbooks and edited volumes,
aswellasoutstandingPh.D.theses.Itsgoalistocoverallthemainbranchesofcivil
engineering, both theoretical and applied, including:
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Building Materials
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Geotechnical Engineering
Earthquake Engineering
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Hydraulics, Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15088
š
Sa o Medved Suzana Domjan
(cid:129)
Ciril Arkar
Sustainable Technologies
for Nearly Zero Energy
Buildings
Design and Evaluation Methods
123
Sašo Medved Ciril Arkar
Faculty of MechanicalEngineering Faculty of MechanicalEngineering
University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia
Suzana Domjan
Faculty of MechanicalEngineering
University of Ljubljana
Ljubljana, Slovenia
ISSN 2366-259X ISSN 2366-2603 (electronic)
SpringerTracts inCivil Engineering
ISBN978-3-030-02821-3 ISBN978-3-030-02822-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02822-0
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018959255
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Preface
In the past decades, the energy performance of buildings has increased by a factor
of 10, which is significantly higher than in other energy use sectors. At that time,
the EU’s energy and environment policy led to the creation of regulatory require-
ments,standardsandtechnologiesfortheimplementationofcomplexsystemssuch
as passive buildings or sustainable buildings. European Union expressed commit-
ment to develop sustainable, competitive, secure and decarbonized energy system,
by adopting Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD), including
requirementsfornearlyZero-EnergyBuildings(nZEB).Sinceenergyefficiencyand
environmental sustainability requirements are becoming more and more complex,
the knowledge of building designers must be more comprehensive too—from
understanding of physical principles, have an overview of legal framework, to be
familiar with advanced building service technologies and finally to have a
knowledge of using methods for comprehensive verification of the ‘final product’:
nZEB. Awareness that deep interdisciplinary knowledge is the only guarantee that
this task will be fulfilled has been a guide to the design of the contents and the
scope of this book.
Through 14 chapters, the book leads the reader through basics of planning and
evaluationoflivingcomfortintheindoorenvironment,basicsofbuildingphysics,
instructions for determination of thermal response of building structures, explana-
tionsandevaluationofnZEBrequirementsanddesign,energyefficiencyevaluation
of buildings’service systems,presentation of methods for planning and evaluation
ofbuildings’energyperformanceandtheenvironmentalimpactscausedbylifelong
use of energy and materials in buildings. Students of architecture, civil and
mechanical engineering and students of other engineering professions, as well as
professional building planners, will get acquainted with modern technologies for
‘in-situ’and‘near-by’productionofheat,coldandelectricityinnearlyzero-energy
buildings including energy-efficient measures and renewable energy technologies
utilization. Theoretical content is supported by in-situ experiments results,
numerical examples and case studies, which were developed by colleges of
Laboratory for Sustainable Technologies in Buildings (LOTZ), Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana.
v
vi Preface
The book is an upgraded teaching material developed in the frame of
ERASMUS+ProjectEduLabFrame(2014-1-RO01-KA203-002986)andwewould
like tothank thecolleagues involved intheproject.The authorswouldalso liketo
thankViessmannWerkeGmbH&Co.KGforextendedpicturematerial.Wewould
like to thank all other cited authors and sources. Finally, we would like to thank
company TRIMO d.o.o. to enable TRIMOExpert software for downloading from
www.TRIMO/eu.
Ljubljana, Slovenia Sašo Medved
Suzana Domjan
Ciril Arkar
Contents
1 Indoor Comfort Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Indoor Thermal Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Criteria for Indoor Environment Thermal Comfort
Global Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Integral Indicators of Indoor Thermal Comfort:
PMV and PPD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.3 Adaptive Model of Thermal Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.4 Local Indoor Thermal Comfort Indicators . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.2 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Required Ventilation for IAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Visual Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 Criteria of Visual Comfort Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Acoustic Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.1 Sound Recognition and Noise Protection. . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Energy Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Renewable Energy Sources (RES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.1 Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.2 Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.3 Tidal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Fuels as Energy Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1 Non-renewable Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.2 Renewable Fuels Made from Biomass. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3 Introduction to Building Physics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 Heat Transfer in Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.1 Thermal Transmittance of Building Structures
(U-Value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
vii
viii Contents
3.1.2 Thermal Transmittance of Homogeneous Structures . . . 61
3.1.3 Thermal Transmittance of Structures with Closed Air
Gap or Ventilated Air Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.4 Thermal Transmittance of Green Building
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.5 Thermal Transmittance of Building Structures in
Contact with the Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.6 Thermal Transmittance of Windows (and Doors) . . . . . 67
3.1.7 Thermal Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.8 Specific Transmission Heat Transfer Coefficient
(Average Thermal Transmittance of Building
Envelope) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.9 Total Solar Energy Transmittance of Windows
(and Transparent Envelope Structures). . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.10 Heat Accumulation in Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2 Psychrometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4 Experimental Evaluation of Buildings’ Envelope Thermal
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Semi-professional Tools and Applications for Evaluation
of Indoor Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 In-Situ Determination of Heat Transfer Coefficient U
of Building Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 In-Situ Determination of Glazing Total Solar Energy
Transmittance g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4 In-Situ Determination of the Building Envelope Thermal
Insulation with Thermography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5 In-Situ Determination of Building Airtightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.6 In-Situ Determination of Overall Building
Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5 Global Climate and Energy Performance of the Building. . . . . . . . 105
5.1 Energy Performance of Building Directive (EPBD)
and Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2 Determination of Energy Performance of the Buildings. . . . . . . 109
5.2.1 Time Step Intervals and Calculation Period . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Determination of Building Energy Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.1 Energy Need for Heating Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
NH
5.3.2 Energy Need for Cooling Q : Monthly Calculation
NC
Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3.3 Energy Need for Heating Q and Cooling Q :
NH HC
Hourly Calculation Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Contents ix
5.3.4 Energy Need for Ventilation Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
V
5.3.5 Energy Need for Domestic Hot Water Q . . . . . . . . . . 121
W
5.3.6 Energy Need for Humidification Q
HU
and Dehumidification Q of Indoor Air. . . . . . . . . . 122
DHU
5.3.7 Energy Need for Lighting Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
L
5.4 Delivered Energy for the Building Operation Q . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
f
5.5 Primary Energy Needed for the Building Operation . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6 Best Available Technologies (BAT) for On-Site
and Near-by Generation of Heat for NZEB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Local or Decentralized Heat Generators
for Residential Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.1.1 Biomass Stoves and Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.1.2 Electrical Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2 Heat Generators for Central Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.2.1 Combustion Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.2.2 Heat Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Solar Thermal Collectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.3.1 Thermal Efficiency of Solar Thermal Collectors. . . . . . 154
6.3.2 Production of Heat: Rule of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.4 District Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.5 Other Heat Generators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7 Best Available Technologies (BAT) for On-Site Electricity
Generation for nZEB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.1.1 Types of PV Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.1.2 PV Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.1.3 Building Integrated PV Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.1.4 PV Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.1.5 Production of Electricity: Rule of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.1.6 Environmental Impacts of PV Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2 Small Scale Cogeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2.1 Cost Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.2.2 Environmental Benefits of mCHP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3 Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3.1 Wind Energy Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.3.2 Rated Power and Efficiency of Wind Turbines. . . . . . . 182
7.3.3 Types of Wind Turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.3.4 Production of Electricity: Rule of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.3.5 Environmental Impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
