Sustainable Energy: Towards a Zero-Carbon Economy using Chemistry, Electrochemistry and Catalysis

240 Pages·2022·41.508 MB·English

by  Julian R.H. Ross

SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY
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SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY
Towards a Zero-Carbon
Economy using
Chemistry,
Electrochemistry
and Catalysis
JULIAN R.H. ROSS
EmeritusProfessor,UniversityofLimerick,Limerick,Ireland;
MemberoftheRoyalIrishAcademy(MRIA);Fellowofthe
Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC)
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Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
1. Introduction 1
Energyproductionandthegreenhouseeffect 1
Greenhousegases 4
Consequencesofthegreenhouseeffect 9
Thesourcesofgreenhousegasemissions 11
2. Traditional methodsofproducing, transmitting and using
energy 21
Introduction 21
Coal 21
Crudeoil 38
Naturalgas 42
Concludingremarks 47
3. Lessconventional energy sources 49
Introduction 49
Nuclearenergy 50
Geothermalenergy 55
Tidalenergy 59
Wavepower 62
Hydroelectricpower 63
Windpower 67
Solarpower 69
Concludingremarks 75
4. The production andusesof hydrogen 77
Introduction 77
Theproductionofhydrogenfromnaturalgasbysteamreforming 77
Theproductionofhydrogenfromnaturalgasbyothermethods 89
Methanolproduction 96
ProductionoffuelsusingtheFischerTropschprocess 97
Productionofammonia 99
Conclusions 102
v
vi Contents
5. Biomass as asource ofenergyand chemicals 103
Introduction 103
Woodasasourceofenergyandpaper 104
Non-traditionalusesofbiomass:Firstandsecondgenerationbio-refinery
processes 112
Concludingremarks 129
6. Transport 131
Introduction 131
Historicaldevelopmentofmechanicallydriventransport 131
Exhaustemissioncontrol 143
Hybridvehicles 150
Plug-inhybridvehicles 152
Batteryelectricalvehicles 154
Fuelcellvehicles 159
Concludingremarks 160
7. Batteries,fuel cells andelectrolysis 163
Introduction 163
TheVoltapile,Faradayandtheelectrochemicalseries 163
Half-cellEMF’sandtheelectrochemicalseries 167
Thekineticsofelectrochemicalprocesses 170
Electrochemicalbatteries 175
Flowbatteries 185
Fuelcells 186
Electrolysis 192
8. The way forward: Net Zero 197
Introduction 197
Hydrogenproductionusingrenewableenergy 199
Fuelcellstobeusedfortransportationpurposes 203
Solidoxidehydrolysiscells(SOEC’s)forhydrogenproductionandtheiruse
forthesynthesisofgreenammoniaandmethanol 205
Tailpiece 221
Index 225
Preface
Itisnotpossibletoopenanewspaperormagazinewithoutreadingofsome
aspectoftheglobalproblemofclimatechangeandofthemeasuresthatare
necessarytocombatitsothatwecanachieve‘zerocarbon’beforetheyear
2050.Therehasbeenasteadyincreaseintheemissionofgreenhousegases
sincetheIndustrialRevolutionandtheaimofallthosecountriesthathave
signeduptotheParisAccordistobringbacktheresultanttemperaturerise
to no more than 2°C (and even to 1.5°C) within fewer than 30 years.
This book considers many aspects of the potential uses of ‘sustainable
energy’. In this context, this is the energy that can be obtained by using
renewableresourcessuchaswindpower,hydroelectricpowerorsolarradi-
ation, and the bookdiscusses how this energy can beused in place of con-
ventionally derived energy from fossil reserves: coal, oil and natural gas. In
ordertosetthescene,thebookalsodiscussesinsomedetailthemanywaysin
which conventional energy is currently used.
Thefirstchaptersetsthescenebyconsideringsomeaspectsofthegreen-
houseeffectandoutlinestheobjectivesoftheParisAccordthatisaimedat
reducingtheemissionsresponsiblefortheeffect.Itthentracestheoriginsof
thegreenhouseeffect,discussingsomehumanactivities(manyofwhichare
discussed later in the book) that have taken place since the Industrial Rev-
olution and have contributed to the increased emissions.
Thebookthenconsiderssomeimportantexistingindustrialactivities,all
relatedto theuseofenergy createdfrom theuseoffossil fuels,coal oiland
naturalgas,eachofwhichresultsintheemissionofgreenhousegases.Some
oftheseemissionscanbereducedbymethodssuchascarboncollectionand
storage,butanalternativeistoproducesomeofthechemicalsandfuelson
which we rely by using biomass-derived materials. Hence, the use of bio-
mass as a source of energy and chemicals is then considered.
Transport,inoneformortheother,isresponsibleforasignificantshare
ofourgreenhousegasemissions.Thedevelopmentsthathaveoccurredsince
the Industrial Revolution of various forms of transport are outlined and
modern developments such as the use of hybrid engines, battery power
andfuelcellsarethenconsidered.Thisleadstoadetaileddiscussionofvar-
ious types of batteries and fuel cells followed by a section considering the
potential importance of electrolysis brought about using renewable energy
as a means of producing hydrogen and syngas.
vii
viii Preface
The final chapter considers how green hydrogen or syngas produced
using electrolytic methods fuelled by renewable electricity can be used in
industrialapplicationssuchasammoniaandmethanolsynthesis,theproduc-
tion of steel and cement manufacture. It also considers the importance of
achieving reductions in emissions from commercial, domestic and agricul-
tural sources.
The reductions required to allow us reach the targets set in the Paris
Accord are enormous and the progress towards achieving these aims has
beendisappointinglyslowuntilnow.Governmentsandresponsibleagencies
mustthereforepaysignificantlygreaterattentiontowaysinwhichobjectives
canbeachievedandcanonlymanagethatbyapplyingthe‘carrotandstick
approach’: offering incentives to all energy users that encourage energy-
saving initiatives and the introduction of new methods while at the same
time penalising inactivity.
Acknowledgements
AsIdidinmyprevioustwobooks,Ifirstthanktheverymanypeoplewith
whomI haveworkedover theyearsfor their effortsandenthusiasm, espe-
ciallythestudentsandpostdocsfrommyvariousresearchgroups,toomany
tonameindividually,whohavehelpedmebuildupmyknowledgeofcatal-
ysis and related fields. Thanks are also due to the many scientists and engi-
neerswithwhommydifferentresearchgroupshavecollaboratedandfrom
whomIhavelearntmuchabouttheapplicationsandexploitationoffunda-
mental research in the field of heterogeneous catalysis. This collaborative
work was carried out with funding provided by many sources, particularly
by various EU research programmes.
IthankElsevierandthemanypeoplefromthatcompanywith whomI
havecollaboratedduringmyeditorialworkforAppliedCatalysisandCatal-
ysisTodayandintheproductionofthethreebooksthatIhavenowwritten
and published with them. In particular, I thank Kostas Marinakis who not
only guided me through the process involved in the planning of this book
butwithwhomIhavehadmanypreviousinteractionsduringmyworkasan
editor. I wish him well in his retirement. Thanks are also due to Kostas’s
successor, Anita Koch, for her more recent involvement with the produc-
tionofthisbook;toNarmathaMohanforherassistanceinensuringthatthe
necessary permission had been obtained to reproduce copyright material;
and to Bharatwaj Varatharajan for his careful and helpful work on the final
production and during the proofreading stage. I particularly thank Alice
Grantwho,asthemostrecentElsevierdeskeditorinvolved,hascheerfully
and helpfully worked with me for most of the writing process.
My thanks are due to two good friends who, each in particular way,
helpedmeduringthewritingphase:firstly,mycolleagueandlong-standing
collaborator,MichaelHayes,whoverykindlyreadthroughthefirstdraftof
Chapter5(BiomassasaSourceofEnergyandChemicals)andnotonlypro-
videdmewithusefulcommentsbutalsogavemeinvaluableinformationon
soilorganicmatter;andsecondly,TonyHilley,aretiredoffshoreoilandgas
engineer, who encouraged me throughout the writing phase by providing
me with a large number of important web links to recent developments in
the field of energy. I also thank Miguel Ban˜ares for his comments on the
contents of the completed manuscript and for suggesting the term ‘Mount
Sustainable’.
ix