Sustainable-Affordable Housing for the Poor in Kerala

256 Pages·2011·12.94 MB·English

by  Deepa Gopalakrishnan Nair

Sustainable-Affordable Housing for the Poor in Kerala
Proefschrift
ler verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Technische Universiteit Delft,
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus. prof. dr. ir. J. T. Fokkema
voorzitter van het College voor Promoties,
in het openbaar le verdedigen
Deepa GOPALAKRISHNAN NAIR
Master of Science in Habitat Technology, Birla Institute of Technology and Science
(India)
Geboren le Alleppey. Kerala, India
cnq 3Jt ,
Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotoren:
Prof. dr. P. J. Vergragt
Prof. dr. ir. K. van Breugel
Samenstelling promotiecommissie:
Rector Magnificus Voorzitter
Prof. dr. P. J. Vergragt Technische Universiteit Oelft, promotor
Prof. dr. ir. K. van Breugel Technische Universiteit Oelft, promotor
Or. ir. A. L.A. Fraaij Technische Universiteit Oelft, toegevoegd promotor
Prof. dr. A. Kentgens Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen
Prof. dr. K. S. Jagadish Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
ir. R. Rovers Wageningen Universiteit
Prof. ir. C.A.J. Ouijvestein Technische Universiteit Oelft
Reservelid:
Prof.dr. W.A.H. Thissen Technische Universiteit Oelft
Or. ir. B. Enserink en Or. G. Gopikuttan hebben als begeleiders in belangrijke
mate aan de totstandkoming van het proefschrift bijgedragen.
ISBN-IO: 90-9021395-3
ISBN-13: 978-90-9021395-8
Cover design by Dr. K.B. Jinesh
Copyright © 2006 by Deepa Gopalakrishnan Nair
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical.
photocopying. recording. or otherwise. without the prior permission in writing from the
proprietor.
Sustainable-Mfordable Housing for the Poor in Kerala
Thesis
presented for the degree of doctor
at Delft University of Technology
under the authority of the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. dr. ir. J. T. Fokkema,
Chairman of the Board for Doctorates
to be defended in public in the presence of a committee
on Wednesday, 20 December 2006 at 10.00 o'clock
by
Deepa GOPALAKRISHNAN NAIR
Master of Science in Habitat Technology, Birla Institute of Technology and Science
(India)
Born in Alleppey, Kerala, India
Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Scope of Research
1.1 Introduction I
1.2 Housing situation; issues and concerns 2
1.2.1 India 3
1.2.2 Kerala 4
1.3 Significance of housing in sustainable development 7
lA Research objectives 8
1.5 Research questions 9
1.6 Methodology and chapter scheme 9
Appendix 1.1 13
Appendix 1.2 14
Appendix 1.3 15
Chapter 2 Sustainable-Affordable Housing:
A Framework for conceptualization
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Sustainable-Affordable Housing I7
2.3 Objectives of sustainable-affordable housing 23
2.3.1 Socio-cultural sustainability 24
2.3.2 Economic sustainability or Affordability 26
2.3.3 Technological sustainability 28
2.304 Environmental sustainability 29
204 The conceptual framework for sustainable-affordable housing 34
2.5 Conclusion 35
Chapter 3 Public Housing policy in Kerala:
History and Evaluation
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Evolution of housing policy 37
3.2.1 Developing countries 38
3.2.2 Housing policy: India 41
3.2.3 Housing policy: Kerala 49
3.3 Evaluation of public housing schemes: Kerala 54
x Table ofconrenrs
3.3.1 Scheme sekction and peculiarities 54
3.3.1.1 One Lakh Housing Scheme (OLHS) 55
3.3.1.2 Indira Awaas Yojana (lA Y) 56
3.3.1.3 Total Housing Scheme (THS) 57
3.3.2 Sustainability analysis for selected schemes 58
3.4 Conclusion 62
Appendix 3.1 64
Appendix 3.2 65
Chapter 4 Public Housing Policy in Kerala: Evaluation of
Household surveys and Case studies
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Household survey and case studies 69
4.2.1 Case studies from One La,kh Housing Scheme 71
4.2.2 Case studies from lndira Awaas Yojana 73
4.2.3 Case studies from Total Housing Seheme 76
4.2.4 Conclusions from the field research 79
4.3 Analysis II1 (From the perspective of households) 81
4.3.1 Comparison of different aspects of sustainability
between the schemes 81
4.3.2 Correlation between different aspects of sustainability
within the schemes 84
4.3.3 Correlation between different aspects of sustainability
hetween the schemes 88
4.3.4 Comparison of total sustainabi lity among the schemes 90
4.3.5 Conclusions from the statistical analysis 90
4.4 Examples of housing programmes from other countries 91
4.4.1 The People's Housing Process(PHP), South Africa 91
4.4.2 The Grameen Bank (GB) low-cost
housing programme, Bangladesh 94
4.4.3 Million Houses Programme (MHP), Sri Lanka 96
4.5 Discussions and Evaluation 9K
4.5.1 Socio-cultural Sustainability 98
4.5.2 Economic sustainability or Affordability 100
4.5.3 Technological sustainability 103
4.5.4 Environmental sustainability 105
4.6 Strategies for sustainable-affordable housing in Kerala 107
Table of contents xi
4.0.1 Policy measures for socio-cultural sustainahility (PSCS) 108
4.6.2 Policy measures for economic sustainability
or a1Tordability (PES) 109
4.6.3 Policy measures for technological sustainability (PTS) 110
4.6.4 Policy measures for environmental sustainability (PEVS) III
4.7 Conclusion II1
Appendix 4.1 112
Appendix 4.2 123
Chapter 5 Evaluation of Technology Options: Kerala
5.1 Introduction 127
5.2 Evolution 0[" the present building process: Kcrala 127
5.2.1 Traditional building process In
5.2.2 Modernisation of the building process 128
5.2.3 Emergence of Cost Effective and
Environmentally Friendly (CEEF) technology 130
5.2.3.1 Centre of Science and Technology for
Rural Development (COSTFORD) 130
5.2.3.2 Nirmithi Kendra 130
5.3 Popular building alternatives in Kerala 133
5.3.1 Foundation and hasernent 133
5.3.2 Walling or superstructure 134
5.3.3 Roofing 136
5.3.4 Sustainable utilization of waste materials for
building process 139
5.4 Selection of building alternatives 141
5.4.1 Comprehensive analysis based on the
conceptual framework 141
5.4.2 Grading of building components based
on embodied cnergy 145
5.5 Sustainable alternatives; specific considerations in the
contex.t of Kerala 149
5.5.1 Choice of sustainable technology options 150
5.5.2 Suslainahility analysis for new technology options 151
5.6 Conclusion 153
xii Tahle of contents
Appendix 5.1 154
Appendix 5.2 155
Chapter 6 Rice Husk Ash Pozzolana
6.1 Introduction 165
6.2 Literature review 167
6.3 Laboratory research 169
6.3.1 Rice husk ash sample preparation 169
6.3.2 Experimental methods 169
6.3.2.1 Chemical analysis for loss on ignition and total silica 169
6.3.2.2 Soluble fraction of silica 170
6.3.2.3 Pozzolanic activity 170
6.3.2.4 X-ray di ffraction (XRD) analysis 170
6.3.2.5 Microscopic analysis 170
6.3.2.6 29Si Magnetic Angle Spmning (MAS).
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) on RHA 170
6.:U Results and discussion 171
6.3.3.1 Chemical analysis 171
6.:U.2 Pozzolanic activity 172
6.3.3.3 XRD analysis 173
6.3.3.4 Microscopic analysis 176
6.3.3.5 29Si MAS NMR 177
6.4 Field research: Investigation on perti:mnance of field ovens 181
6.4.1 Types of field ovens lRI
6.4.2 Experimental methods lR4
6.4.2.1 Chemical analysis for loss on ignition and
soluble fraction of silica 184
6.4.2.2 Pozwlanic activity 185
6.4.2.3 XRD analysis 186
6.4.2.4 Particle size analysis IR7
6.4.2.5 Determination of specific surface area 188
6.4.2.6 Lime reactivity test 189
6.4.2.7 Long term compressive strength 190
6.4.3 Results and Discussion 192
6.4.3.1 Chemical analysis 192
6.4.3.2 Pozzolanic activity 193
6.4.3.3 XRD analysis 195
6.4.3.4 Particle size analysis 195
Table of contents xiii
6.4.3.5 BET analysis for surface area 196
6.4.3.6 Lim~ reactivity and compressive strength 197
6.5 Conclusions 198
Appendix 6.1 201
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Achievements of this research 203
7.2.1 The conceptual framework 203
7.2.2 Application of the conceptual framework
in the evaluation of housing schemes in Kerala 205
7.2.3 Application of the conceptual framework
in the evaluation of present huilding process in Kerala 209
7.2.4 Rice husk ash pozzolana as a
partial replacement for cement 210
7.2.5 Conclusion and reflection 211
7.3 Recommendations for implementation 212
7.4 Scope for further research 213
References 215
Summary 231
Samenvatting 239
Publications related to the thesis 249
Acknowledgements 251
About the author 253
Chapter J
1. SCOPE OF RESEARCH
1.1 Introduction
Housing embodies many concepts such as comfort, safety, identity and above all, it has
central importance to everyone's quality of life and health, with considerable economic,
social, cultural and personal significance. Access to safe, healthy shelter and basic
services is essential to the overall (physical, psychological, social and economic) well
being of a person. It is also a critical component in the social and economic fabric of all
nations. No country is yet satisfied that adcquate housing has been delivered to the
various economic groups that make up its populace. It persists globally as a problem
irrespective of the economic status of the countries. but differs in its nature and gravity.
Homelessness is the most visible and extrcme form of this and often connected with
lack of basic facilities like drinking water, drainage and sanitation. Tt is estimated that
there arc more than hundred million homeless, having absolutely nowhere to live, and
about one billion people inadequately housed throughout the world. Overall, at \cast six
hundred million people live in shelters that arc life threatening or health threatening in
developing world cities (Tipple et aI., 200S, UN 200S, Erguden, 200 I, UNCHS 1996,).
These figures are rough estimates, as measuring global homelessness is extremely
difficult. Most data are known to be undercounts, relying on service provider statistics
that do not indude the entire homeless popUlation. In addition to the difficulties in
counting mobile and hidden popUlation; the data collection on global scale is impeded
by inaccurate and limited or non existent data collection in many (;ountries and variation
in the definition of homelessness. Anyhow, it is clear that the current and worsening
global shelter situation needs serious concern. The persistence and growth of poor
shelter conditions, parti(;ularly in the developing countries, is a stumbling block to
socio-political stability and economic development (UNCHS, 1990). It urges the need
for scaling-up housing supply and has become a focus of policy debate. A holistic
approach is imperative to assess the housing demands, analyse the issues and solve the
problems of those people who are not ablc to afford their housing due to lower
economic status and inaccessibility to common property resources.
Housing has widely been acknowledged as a human right rather than being a basic need.
Since the adoption of Universal Declaration of Human Rights· in 1948. the human right
• "Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and of his family, induding food, clothing. housing, medical care, necessary
social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness,
disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his
control." (Article 25(1), Universal Declaration of Human Rights).
2 Chapter]
to adequate housing has heen repeatedly reaffirmed (UNCHS, 2000). The Millennium
Development Goals have identified improving housing conditions as an integral part of
the global development agenda (UN, 20(5). It is recognized that adequate shelter for all
and sustainable human settlements development cannot be isolated from the broader
social and economic development of countries. Also they cannot be set apart from the
technological advancements and environmental protection. All these factors are
indispensable and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development.
Inadequate and insecure shelter will lead to social and political instability and will
hamper economic development. In this sense, global shelter conditions are closely
linked to the achievement and maintenance of world peace and economic stability. The
economic and political self-reliance. social justice, and an environmentally sound
quality of li fe are factors, which lead to sustainahle development.
1.2 Housing situation; issues and concerns
Human settlements prohlems are of a multidimensional nature. They vary even from
individual to individual, rural to urban, and obviously from country to country both in
terms of quantity and quality. The unmet demand for housing, along with poverty, has
led to the emergence of slums in many poor countries as a solution to affordable
housing for low-income people. This is particularly true in third world countries where
the majority of the housing activities are being done by acquiring land through purchase
or invasion. In such cases, poor people with limited income and know-how construct
their own houses with available resources, and gradually improve the structure in due
course of time. As a result in most cases, the quality of housing is miserable with
insufficient basic services, unhygienic surroundings, lack of access to safe water and
proper sanitation. Hence quantitative housing deficits in most countries (even very poor
ones) are relatively small, suggesting that the housing problcm is largely qualitative
rather than quantitative (World Bank, 2005).
The housing problem of low-income countries differs greatly from that experienced in
developed economies, and further rural and urhan housing also exhibit their own
peculiar characteristics. There is a number of constraints that slow down the housing
development programmes and the devdopmcnt of a sustainable habitat. Lack of
effective implementation strategies, inadequate supply of affordable land and
infrastructure, inadequacy of housing finance systems are a few among such constraints.
Inadequate access to affordable building matcrials is one of the major limitations of the
poor in developing countries to provide adequate housing for them. Out of the total cost
of house construction, building materials contribute more than Ii fty percent in
developing countries like India. The gap hetwecn the rising demand and the stagnating,
and in many cases declining, production levels is widening at an alarming rate, leading