Surge Tectonics: A New Hypothesis of Global Geodynamics

339 Pages·1996·28.04 MB·English

by  Arthur A. Meyerhoff, Irfan Taner, A. E. L. Morris, W. B. Agocs, M. Kamen-Kaye, M. I. Bhat, N. C. Smoot, Dong R. Choi (auth.), Donna Meyerhoff Hull (eds.)

SURGE TECTONICS:
A NEW HYPOTHESIS OF GLOBAL GEODYNAMICS
Solid Earth Sciences Library
Volume 9
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Surge Tectonics:
A New Hypothesis of
Global Geodynamics
by
ARTHUR A. MEYERHOFFt
former International Geological Consultant, Tulsa, OK, U.S.A.
IRFANTANER
Consulting Geologist, Tulsa, OK, U.S.A.
A. E. L. MORRIS
Consulting Geologist, Los Angeles, CA, U.SA.
W.B.AGOCS
Consulting Geologist, Allentown, PA, U.S.A.
M. KAMEN-KAYE
Consulting Geologist, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A.
M.1. BHAT
Wadia Institute ofH imalayan Geology, Dehra Dun, India
N. C. SMOOT
U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, Stennis Space Center, MS, U.S.A.
DONGR. CHOI
Consulting Geologist, Higgins, A.C.T. Australia
edited by
DONNA MEYERHOFF HULL
The University of Texas at Dallas, U.S.A.
KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS
DORDRECHT / BOSTON / LONDON
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7278-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-1738-5
001: 10.1007/978-94-009-1738-5
Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Kluwer Academic Publishers incorporates
the publishing programmes of
D. Reidel, Martinus Nijhoff, Dr W. Junk and MTP Press.
Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada
by Kluwer Academic Publishers,
101 Philip Drive, Norwell, MA 02061, U.S.A.
In all other countries, sold and distributed
by Kluwer Academic Publishers Group,
P.O. Box 322, 3300 AH Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved
© 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Howard A. Meyerhoff, father of the senior author and fonner professor of geology
at Smith College, to V. V. Beloussov, fonnerly of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and to
Alexander Baird, fonnerly of Pomona College, California; three distinguished geologists who
greatly influenced the career of the senior author throughout his life.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface: Tectonics and Physics .............................................. Xlll
Editor's Postscript ........................................................ xv
Acknowledgements .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xvii
Chapter 1: WHY A NEW HYPOTHESIS? ..................................... 1
1. 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.2 Former and Current Concepts of Earth Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
l.2.l General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
1.2.2 Contraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
1.2.3 Mantle Convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
1.2.4 Earth Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
1.2.5 Vertical Tectonics ..................................... 7
1.2.6 Zonal Rotation ........................................ 7
l.2.7 Continental Drift, Polar Wandering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
1.2.8 Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
l.2.9 Tectonostratigraphic Terranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
l.2.10 Wedge Tectonics .................................... 10
1.2.11 Plate Tectonics with Fixed Continents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
l.2.12 Zipper Tectonics (Spiral Tectonics) ..................... 11
1.2.13 Viscous Flow Model ................................. 11
1.3 Conclusion ................................................... 11
Chapter 2: UNRAVELING EARTH HISTORY: TECTONIC DATA SETS ......... 12
2.1 Data Availability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
2.2 New Data Acquisition .......................................... 12
2.2.1 Submersibles and Deep-Sea Drilling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
2.2.2 Sonography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.2.3 Accurate Bathymetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.2.4 Seismotomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
2.2.5 Space Geodesy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.6 Satellite Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
2.2.7 Satellite Radar Altimetry ............................. 16
2.2.8 Radar Mapping of Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
2.2.9 Other Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
2.3 Data Sets Unexplained in Current Tectonic Models: Foundation for a New
Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
2.3.1 Linear Structures ..................................... 18
2.3.2 Lithosphere Diapirs and Lithosphere Magma Chambers ...... 20
2.3.3 Magma Chamber-Related Phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
2.3.4 Tectonostratigraphic Terranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
2.3.5 Stretching Lineations .................................. 32
2.3.6 Segmentation ........................................ 32
2.3.7 Rift Zone to Verschluckungszone ........................ 33
2.3.8 Hydrothermal Manifestations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
viii
2.3.9 Reticulate Pattern of High Heat-Flow Bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
2.3.10 Microearthquake Bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
2.3.11 Diffuse Plate Boundaries ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
2.3.12 Linear Anorogenic Belts .............................. 41
2.3.13 Continental-Margin Phenomena ........................ 42
2.3.14 Vortex Structures .................................... 43
2.3 .15 Magma Floods ...................................... 46
2.3.16 Seismotomography and Convection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
2.3.17 Antipodal Positions of Continents and Ocean Basins .,. . . . .. 47
2.3.18 World Evaporite Distribution .......................... 47
2.3.19 Preferential Eastward Flow of the Asthenosphere. . . . . . . . . .. 47
2.3.20 Seismic Studies of Oceanic Crust ....................... 53
2.3.21 Ocean-Floor Bathymetry .............................. 54
2.3.22 Tensile Stress Characterizes the Midocean Ridge Regimes. .. 56
2.3.23 Oceanic Basement ................................... 57
2.3.24 Increasing Age of Oceanic Crust Away from the Midocean-
Ridge Crest ...................................... 57
2.3.25 Mid-Atlantic Ridge Geology North of 37" N Latitude ....... 58
2.3.26 Mid-Atlantic Ridge Geology of the Equatorial Atlantic ...... 60
2.3.27 Linear Magnetic Anomalies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
2.3.28 Paleomagnetism ..................................... 64
2.3.29 Benioff Zones ....................................... 65
2.3.30 Mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
2.4 Conclusion ................................................... 67
Chapter 3: SURGE TECTONICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
3. 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
3.2 Velocity Structure of the Earth's Outer Shells ........................ 69
3.2.1 Basic Framework ..................................... 69
3.2.2 Continents Have Deep Roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
3.3 Contraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
3.3.1 General ........................................... " 76
3.3.2 Contraction Skepticism ................................ 76
3.3.3 Evidence For a Differentiated, Cooled Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
3.4 Contraction as an Explanation of Earth Dynamics .................... 83
3.4.1 Contraction Acting Alone ............................. " 83
3.4.2 Contraction Acting as the Trigger For Tectogenesis. . . . . . . . .. 85
3.5 Review of Surge and Related Concepts in Earth-Dynamic Theory. . . . . . .. 86
3.5.1 Surge Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
3.5.2 Use of the Surge Concept in Tectonics .................... 88
3.6 Geotectoni9 Cycle of Surge Tectonics .............................. 88
3.7 Pascal's Law---the Core of Tectogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
3.8 Evidence for the Existence of Surge Channels ....................... 92
3.8.1 Seismic-Reflection Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
3.8.2 Seismic-Refraction Data ............................... 92
3.8.3 Seismotomographic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93
3.8.4 Surface-Geological Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
3.8.5 Other Data .......................................... 95
ix
3.9 Geometry of Surge Channels ..................................... 97
3.9.1 Surge-Channel Cross Section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
3.9.2 Surge-Channel Surface Expression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
3.9.3 Role of the Mohorovi6c Discontinuity .................... 98
3.9.4 Formation of Multitiered Surge Channels ................. 102
3.10 Demonstration of Tangential Flow in Surge Channels ............... 102
3.10.1 Linear Tangential Flow: Belts of Parallel Faults, Fractures,
andFissures ..................................... 102
3.10.2 Linear Tangential Flow: Elongate Segmentation Parallel with
Tectonic Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
3.10.3 Vortical Tangential Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. III
3. 11 Mechanism for Eastward Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115
3.12 Classification of Surge Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115
3.12.l Introduction ....................................... 115
3.12.2 Ocean-Basin Surge Channels .......................... 116
3.12.3 Continental-Margin Surge Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
3.12.4 Continental Surge Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118
3.13 K Structures ................................................ 118
3.14 Criteria for the Identification of Surge Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 122
Chapter 4: EXAMPLES OF SURGE CHANNELS ............................. 124
4.1 Ocean-Basin Surge Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124
4.1.l Mid-Atlantic Ridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124
4.1.2 East Pacific Rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125
4.1.3 Midocean- Ridge Magnetic Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125
4.1.4Feederchannels ..................................... 129
4.2 Surge Channels of Continental Margins ........................... 129
4.2.1 Breakout Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130
4.2.2 Active Margin Channels: Western Pacific Basin. . . . . . . . . . .. 132
4.2.3 Active Margin Channels: North American Western
Cordillera ....................................... 133
4.2.4 Passive Margin Channels: Caledonides and Appalachians. . .. 144
4.3 Continental Surge Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146
4.3.1 Lithosphere Thickness and Tectonic Style. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147
4.3.2 Yunnan Himalaya (Hengduan Shan) ..................... 148
4.3.3 Dinarides-Balkanides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
4.3.4Alps ............................................... 150
4.3.5 Middle and High Atlas of Morocco .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151
4.3.6 Baykal Rift System ................................... 152
4.3.7 East African Rift System .............................. 153
4.3.8 Mississippi Embayment ............................... 153
4.3.9 Rhine Graben ....................................... 154
4.4 Surge Channels in Zones of Transtension-Transpression . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154
4.4.l San Andreas Fault ................................... 154
4.4.2 North Anatolia Fault .................................. 158
4.4.3 Other Major Strike-Slip Zones .......................... 158
x
Chapter 5: THE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF SOUTHEAST ASIA--A REGIONAL
APPLICATION OF THE SURGE-TECTONICS HYPOTHESIS ........... 159
5.1 Surge Tectonic Framework .............................. 159
5.1.1 The North-South Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
5.1.2 Neocathaysian (North-Northeast) Strikes ................. 163
5.1.3 Role and Position of Benioff Zone ....................... 164
5.1.4 Geometric Patterns Formed by Platforms, Massifs, and Surge
Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167
5.1.5 Overall Eastward-Directed Flow Pattern of Asia ........... 167
5.1.6 Fundamental Elements of the Surge-Tectonic Evolution of
Southeastern Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
5.2 Surge-Tectonic History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
5.2.1 General ............................................ 168
5.2.2 Pre-Sinian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170
5.2.3 Sinian-Ordovician (Figs. 5.6,5.8) ....................... 171
5.2.4 Silurian-Devonian (Fig. 5.9) ........................... 173
5.2.5 Carboniferous-Late Pelmian (Figs. 5.10-5.11) . . . . . . . . . . . .. 174
5.2.6 Triassic-Middle Jurassic (Fig. 5.12) ..................... 179
5.2.7 Late Jurassic-Present (Figs. 5.17 -5.18, 5.3) ............... 183
Chapter 6: MAGMA FLOODS, FLOOD BASALTS, AND SURGE TECTONICS. .. 192
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
6.1.1 Significance of flood basalts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
6.1.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193
6.1.3 The Petrographic Character of Flood-Basalt Provinces ...... 194
6.2 Descriptions of Selected Continental Flood-Basalt Provinces . . . . . . . . .. 194
6.2.1 Keweenawan Flood Basalt (proterozoic), Midcontinent
United States (Linear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194
6.2.2 Antrim Plateau (proterozoic-Cambrian), Northern Australia
(Ovate) ......................................... 200
6.2.3 Northern Siberia (permian-Triassic), Siberian Platform
(Ovate) ......................................... 201
6.2.4 Emeishan Flood Basalts (permian-Triassic) of Greater
Southwestern China (Ovate) ........................ 203
6.2.5 Wrangellian (Triassic) Flood Basalts of Western and
Northwestern North America (Linear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204
Wrangell Mountains, Alaska ........................ 205
Chichagof Island and Baranof Island, Alaska ........... 206
Queen Charlotte Islands, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 206
Vancouver Island, Canada .......................... 206
Hells Canyon and Wallowa Mountains, Oregon ......... 206
6.2.6 Kirkpatrick Basalt-Fenar Dolerite (Jurassic), Antarctica
(Linear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 206
6.2.7 Kanoo Flood Basalts (Jurassic) of East Southern Mrica
(Ovate) ......................................... 208
6.2.8 Ma1aita Island (Cretaceous) (Ovate) ..................... 209
6.2.9 Ontong Java Plateau (Cretaceous) (Ovate) ................ 209
6.2.10 Parana Flood Basalts (Cretaceous) of Greater Southern
xi
Brazil (Linear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211
6.2.11 Deccan Flood Basalts (Late Cretaceous-Tertiary), Western
Peninsular India (Ovate) ........................... 213
6.2.12 Flood Basalts of the Argentinian Foreland (Late Cretaceous-
Tertiary) (Linear) ................................. 215
6.2.13 Brito-Arctic (Tertiary-Quaternary) Basaltic Province
(Linear) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216
6.2.14 Syrian-Arabian-Greater Ethiopian Magmatic Province
(Tertiary-Quaternary) (Ovate) ...................... 217
6.2.15 Tertiary Flood Basalts of Central America (Ovate) ......... 221
6.2.16 Columbia River Flood Basalts (Tertiary-Quaternary),
Northwestern United States (Ovate) .................. 223
6.2.17 Mid-Ocean Ridge Flood Basalts (Linear) ................ 224
6.3 The Use of Geochemistry in IdentifYing Flood Basalts .... . . . . . . . . . . .. 225
6.3.1 Introduction ........................................ 225
6.3.2 Basalt Magmas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226
6.3.3 Studies of Minor and Rare Earth Elements ................ 228
Midocean-Ridge Basalts (Ocean-Floor Volcanism) ...... 228
Ocean-Island Basalts (Oceanic Intraplate Volcanism) .... 229
Continental Flood Basalts (Continental Intraplate
Volcanism) ............................... 229
Volcanic Arc Basalts ("Subduction" Basalts) ........... 229
Island Arc Basalts
Continental Margin Volcanic Arcs
6.4 Geochemical Comparisons among Basalts Erupted in Different Tectonic
Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 231
6.4.1 Midocean ridge Basalts ............................... 231
6.4.2 Ocean Island and Continental Flood Basalts ............... 231
6.4.3 Continental Flood and Volcanic-Arc Basalts. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 233
6.4.4 The Lebombo or East Karroo Continental-Flood Basalts ..... 233
6.4.5 Peruvian Andes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 236
6.4.6 Pigafetta Basin, Western Pacific Ocean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238
6.4.7 Conclusion ......................................... 239
6.5 Duration ofIndividual Basalt Floods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 239
6.5.1 Introduction ........................................ 239
6.5.2 Flood-Basalt Provinces of Long Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
Siberian Flood-Basalt Province ...................... 241
Deccan Flood-Basalt Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
6.5.3 Flood-Basalt Provinces of Short Duration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242
Columbia River Flood-Basalt Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242
Wrangellian Flood-Basalt Province ................... 242
6.5.4 Conclusion ......................................... 242
6.6 Flood-Basalt Provinces and Frequency in Geologic Time. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242
6.7 Non-Basalt Flood Volcanism in Flood-Basalt Provinces .............. 243
6.8 Flood Basalts or Magma Floods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
6.9 Surge-Tectonics Origin of Magma Floods .......................... 253
Chapter 7: CONCLUSIONS ............................................... 255