Surfaces and Interfaces of Electronic Materials

576 Pages·2010·7.758 MB·English

by  Leonard J. Brillson(auth.)

LeonardJ.Brillson
SurfacesandInterfacesof
ElectronicMaterials
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Leonard J. Brillson
Surfaces and Interfaces of
Electronic Materials
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V
Contents
Preface XVII
1 Introduction 1
1.1 SurfaceandInterfacesinEverydayLife 1
1.2 SurfacesandInterfacesinElectronicsTechnology 2
Problems 7
References 8
2 HistoricalBackground 9
2.1 ContactElectrificationandtheDevelopmentofSolid-State
Concepts 9
2.2 High-PuritySemiconductorCrystals 10
2.3 DevelopmentoftheTransistor 10
2.4 TheSurfaceScienceEra 12
2.5 AdvancesinCrystalGrowthTechniques 13
2.6 FutureElectronics 15
Problems 15
References 16
3 ElectricalMeasurements 19
3.1 SchottkyBarrierOverview 19
3.2 IdealSchottkyBarriers 20
3.3 RealSchottkyBarriers 22
3.4 SchottkyBarrierHeightMeasurements 25
3.4.1 Current–Voltage(J–V)Technique 25
3.4.2 Capacitance–Voltage(C–V)Technique 28
3.4.3 InternalPhotoemissionSpectroscopy(IPS) 29
3.5 Summary 33
Problems 33
References 34
SurfacesandInterfacesofElectronicMaterials.LeonardJ.Brillson
Copyright©2010WILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,Weinheim
ISBN:978-3-527-40915-0
VI Contents
4 InterfaceStates 37
4.1 InterfaceStateModels 37
4.2 SimpleModelCalculationofElectronicSurfaceStates 39
4.3 IntrinsicSurfaceStates 42
4.3.1 ExperimentalApproaches 42
4.3.2 TheoreticalApproaches 43
4.3.3 IntrinsicSurface-StateModels 44
4.3.4 IntrinsicSurfaceStatesofSilicon 45
4.3.5 IntrinsicSurfaceStatesofCompoundSemiconductors 45
4.3.6 DependenceonSurfaceReconstruction 48
4.3.7 IntrinsicSurface-StateSummary 52
4.4 ExtrinsicSurfaceStates 52
4.4.1 WeaklyInteractingMetal–SemiconductorInterfaces 52
4.4.2 ExtrinsicFeatures 55
4.4.3 SchottkyBarrierFormationandThermodynamics 55
4.4.4 ExtrinsicSurface-StateSummary 62
4.5 ChapterSummary 62
Problems 63
References 63
5 UltrahighVacuumTechnology 67
5.1 UltrahighVacuumVessels 67
5.1.1 UltrahighVacuumPressures 67
5.1.2 StainlessSteelUHVChambers 69
5.2 Pumps 70
5.3 SpecimenManipulators 76
5.4 Gauges 76
5.5 DepositionSources 77
5.5.1 MetallizationSources 77
5.5.2 CrystalGrowthSources 78
5.6 DepositionMonitors 79
5.7 Summary 80
Problems 81
References 81
FurtherReading 82
6 SurfaceandInterfaceAnalysis 83
6.1 SurfaceandInterfaceTechniques 83
6.2 ExcitedElectronSpectroscopies 85
6.3 PrinciplesofSurfaceSensitivity 88
6.4 SurfaceAnalyticandProcessingChambers 89
6.5 Summary 92
References 92
FurtherReading 92
Contents VII
7 PhotoemissionSpectroscopy 93
7.1 ThePhotoelectricEffect 93
7.2 TheOpticalExcitationProcess 95
7.3 PhotoionizationCrossSection 95
7.4 DensityofStates 96
7.5 ExperimentalSpectrum 96
7.6 ExperimentalEnergyDistributionCurves 97
7.7 MeasuredPhotoionizationCrossSections 100
7.8 PrinciplesofX-rayPhotoelectronSpectroscopy 112
7.8.1 ChemicalSpeciesIdentification 112
7.8.2 ChemicalShiftsinBinding 114
7.8.3 DistinctionbetweenNear-andSubsurfaceSpecies 114
7.8.4 ChargingandBandBending 115
7.9 ExcitationSources 119
7.10 ElectronEnergyAnalyzers 122
7.11 Summary 125
Problems 125
References 126
8 PhotoemissionwithSoftX-rays 129
8.1 SoftX-raySpectroscopyTechniques 129
8.2 SynchrotronRadiationSources 129
8.3 SoftX-RayPhotoemissionSpectroscopy 132
8.3.1 BasicSurfaceandInterfaceTechniques 132
8.3.2 AdvancedSurfaceandInterfaceTechniques 137
8.3.2.1 AngularResolvedPhotoemissionSpectroscopy 138
8.3.2.2 Polarization-DependentPhotoemissionSpectroscopy 139
8.3.2.3 ConstantFinalStateSpectroscopy 140
8.3.2.4 ConstantInitialStateSpectroscopy 141
8.4 RelatedSoftX-rayTechniques 141
8.5 Summary 143
Problems 144
References 144
9 Particle–SolidScattering 147
9.1 Overview 147
9.2 ScatteringCrossSection 147
9.2.1 ImpactParameter 147
9.2.2 Electron–ElectronCollisions 149
9.2.3 ElectronImpactCrossSection 150
9.3 ElectronBeamSpectroscopies 151
9.4 AugerElectronSpectroscopy 153
9.4.1 AugerTransitionProbability 153
9.4.2 AugerversusX-rayYields 154
9.4.3 AugerExcitationProcess 156
VIII Contents
9.4.4 AugerElectronEnergies 158
9.4.5 QuantitativeElementalIdentification 160
9.5 AugerDepthProfiling 163
9.5 Summary 165
Problems 167
References 168
10 ElectronEnergyLossSpectroscopy 169
10.1 Overview 169
10.2 DielectricResponseTheory 171
10.3 SurfacePhononScattering 172
10.4 BulkandSurfacePlasmonScattering 174
10.5 InterfaceElectronicTransitions 177
10.6 Atomic-ScaleElectronEnergyLossSpectroscopy 180
10.7 Summary 181
References 182
11 RutherfordBackscatteringSpectrometry 183
11.1 Overview 183
11.2 TheoryofRutherfordBackscattering 184
11.3 DepthProfiling 187
11.4 ChannelingandBlocking 190
11.5 InterfaceStudies 192
11.6 Summary 195
Problems 195
References 195
12 SecondaryIonMassSpectrometry 197
12.1 Overview 197
12.2 Principles 197
12.3 SIMSEquipment 199
12.4 SecondaryIonYields 203
12.5 Imaging 206
12.6 DynamicSIMS 207
12.7 OrganicandBiologicalSpecies 211
12.8 Summary 211
Problems 212
References 212
13 ElectronDiffraction 213
13.1 Overview 213
13.2 PrinciplesofLow-EnergyElectronDiffraction 213
13.3 LEEDEquipment 215
13.4 LEEDKinematics 216
13.5 SurfaceReconstruction 217
Contents IX
13.6 SurfaceLatticesandSuperstructures 219
13.7 SiliconReconstructions 221
13.8 III–VCompoundSemiconductorReconstructions 223
13.9 ReflectionHigh-EnergyElectronDiffraction 227
13.8.1 RHEEDOscillations 232
13.9 Summary 233
Problems 234
References 234
14 ScanningTunnelingMicroscopy 237
14.1 Overview 237
14.2 TunnelingTheory 239
14.3 SurfaceStructure 244
14.4 AtomicForceMicroscopy 246
14.5 BallisticElectronEmissionMicroscopy 249
14.6 AtomicPositioning 252
14.7 Summary 253
Problems 254
References 254
15 OpticalSpectroscopies 257
15.1 Overview 257
15.2 OpticalAbsorption 257
15.3 ModulationTechniques 260
15.4 MultipleSurfaceInteractionTechniques 262
15.5 SpectroscopicEllipsometry 263
15.6 Surface-EnhancedRamanSpectroscopy 264
15.7 SurfacePhotoconductivity 267
15.8 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopy 268
15.8.1 TheoryofSurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopy 268
15.8.2 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopyEquipment 270
15.8.3 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectraandPhotovoltageTransients 271
15.8.4 SurfacePhotovoltageSpectroscopyofMetal-InducedSurface
States 274
15.9 Summary 276
Problems 277
References 277
FurtherReading 278
16 CathodoluminescenceSpectroscopy 279
16.1 Overview 279
16.2 Theory 281
16.2.1 ScatteringCrossSection 281
16.2.2 StoppingPower 282
16.2.3 PlasmonEnergyLoss 283
X Contents
16.2.4 ElectronScatteringLength 285
16.2.5 SemiconductorIonizationEnergies 286
16.2.6 UniversalRange-EnergyRelation 288
16.3 MonteCarloSimulations 291
16.4 Depth-ResolvedCathodoluminescenceSpectroscopy 293
16.4.1 SurfaceElectronicStates 295
16.4.2 InterfaceElectronicStates 295
16.4.3 LocalizedCLSinThreeDimensions 297
16.4.3.1 Wafer-ScaleAnalysisof2-DEGLayers 298
16.4.3.2 SchottkyBarriers 300
16.4.3.3 ElectronicDevices 301
16.5 Summary 302
Problems 303
References 304
FurtherReading 304
17 ElectronicMaterials’Surfaces 305
17.1 Overview 305
17.2 GeometricStructure 305
17.2.1 SurfaceRelaxationandReconstruction 305
17.2.2 ExtendedGeometricStructures 306
17.2.2.1 Domains 306
17.2.2.2 Steps 306
17.2.2.3 Defects 310
17.3 ChemicalStructure 311
17.3.1 CrystalGrowth 311
17.3.1.1 BulkCrystalGrowth 311
17.3.1.2 EpitaxialLayerCrystalGrowth 314
17.3.2 KineticsofGrowth,Diffusion,andEvaporation 317
17.4 Etching 318
17.4.1 EtchProcesses 318
17.4.2 WetChemicalEtching 318
17.4.3 OrientationEffectsonWetChemicalEtching 319
17.4.4 Impurities,Doping,andLight 321
17.5 ElectronicImplications 323
17.6 Summary 323
Problems 324
References 324
AdditionalReading 326
18 AdsorbatesonElectronicMaterials’Surfaces 327
18.1 Overview 327
18.2 GeometricStructure 327
18.2.1 SiteSpecificity 328
18.2.2 MetalAdsorbatesonSi 329