Surface Phases On Silicon: Preparation, Structures, And Properties

460 Pages·1995·4.586 MB·English

by  V.G. Lifshits, A.A. Saranin, A.V. Zotov

1
Surface Phaces on Silicon
Preparation, Strucrurs, and Propoties
V.G. LIFSHITS, A.A. SARANIN, and A.V.ZOTOV
2
Contents
Preface 7
Acknowledgments 9
Abbreviations 11
PART I. PRELIMINARY COMMENTS 1
1. Preliminary Comments 3
1. INTRODACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. WHAT SURFACE PHASES ARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. BASICS OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . 5
4. EXPERIMENTAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1. VACUUM, SURFACE CLEANING, AND ABSORBTION . . . . 8
4.2. METHODS OF SURFACE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
PART II. REVIEW OF SURFACE PHASES 17
2. Introduction 19
3. Atomically-clean Silicon Surfaces 23
Silicon (Si) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4. Adsorbates on Silicon Surfaces 51
Silver(Ag) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Aluminum (Al) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Argon (Ar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Arsenic (As). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Gold (Au) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Boron (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Barium (Ba) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Bismuth (Bi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Bromine (Br) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Carbon (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Calcium (Ca) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Cerium (Ce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Chlorine (Cl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Cobalt (Co) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Chromium (Cr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3
4 CONTENTS
Cesium (Cs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Copper (Cu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Dyprosium (Dy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Erbium (Er) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Europium (Eu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fluorine (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Iron (Fe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Gallium (Ga) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Gadolinium (Gd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Germanium (Ge) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Hydrogen (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Mercury (Hg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Holmium (Ho) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Iodine (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Indium (In) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Iridium (Ir) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Potassium (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Krypton (Kr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Lanthanum (La) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Lithium (Li). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Magnesium (Mg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Molybdenum (Mo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Nitrogen (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Sodium (Na) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Niobium (Nb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Nickel (Ni) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Oxygen (O) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Phosphorus (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Lead (Pb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Palladium (Pd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Platinum (Pt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Rubidium (Rb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Sulfur (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Antimony (Sb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Selenium (Se) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Samarium (Sm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Tin (Sn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Strontium (Sr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Tantalum (Ta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Terbium (Tb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Tellurium (Te) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Titanium (Ti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Vanadium (V). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Tungsten (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Xenon (Xe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Yttrium (Y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Ytterbium (Yb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Zinc (Zn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
CONTENTS 5
SUPPLEMENT 1 416
SUPPLEMENT 2 417
SUPPLEMENT 3 423
SUPPLEMENT 4 427
Index 447
6 CONTENTS
Preface
It is safe to say that modern surface science had its origins in the early 1960s. Of course, the
surface-related phenomena e.g. adsorption, catalysis, thin film growth, etc. had been investi-
gated long before, and it was then that the achievements in vacuum technology provided the
feasibility to obtain ultra-high vacuum reliably and, thus, to conduct experiments with what
are commonly called atomically clean crystal surfaces. It was found that many adsorbates
form ordered extremely thin layers since their thicknesses vary typically in the range from a
fractiontoafewatomiclayers,theycanevenbedefinedastwo-dimensional(2D)withspecific
structure, composition, and properties different from those of bulk materials. The study of
various problems related to the formation, atomic and electronic structure and properties of
these 2D layers or surface phases the latter term being increasingly in use became a promis-
ing avenue of materials science. Another important trend in the investigations concerns the
determination of the role of surface phases in different surface phenomena which indeed say,
in the case of adsorption, desorption, surface diffusion, surface reactions, etc. appeared to be
governed mainly by the formation or occurrence of different surface phases.
Since silicon attracts particular attention as the main material of semiconductor elec-
tronics, the surface phases on silicon have been studied extensively by a number of groups
throughout the world over an extended period of about the last 30 years and, as a result, a
greatamount of variedinformation has beenaccumulated bythe scientificcommunity. These
numerous results are spread over a large number of publications and, when someone starts
theinvestigationofaparticularsystem, heoftenhastoovercomeaseriousproblemoffinding
the necessary information. We did have problems in our own research practice since making
a comprehensive bibliography takes a lot of time and effort. So, about four years ago, we
initiated the preparation of this handbook on Surface Phases on Silicon. To our knowledge,
nothing like this has been published before except for several review papers that cover only
selected points of this subject.
The handbook was designed as a guide for researchers working in the field of surface
science. It consists of two non-equivalent parts. Part I contains preliminary comments
concerning the definition of the term “surface phases”, a brief description of the basics of
two-dimensional crystallography, and certain background information about the formation
and characterization of surface phases on silicon. Part I plays an auxiliary role and its task
is to remind the reader of the basic notions of surface science. The main information is
accumulated in Part II that is devoted to the particular “adsorbate/Si” systems. It contains
informationonmorethan300surfacestructuresformedoncleanSi(111),Si(100),andSi(110)
surfaces in the presence of foreign atoms at submonolayer coverages, as well as those without
adsorbates. The data on 64 adsorbates are reviewed including methods of preparation of
surfacephasesconventionally, intheform“coverage-temperature”formationphasediagrams,
modelsoftheiratomicstructureandadescriptionofthesurfacepropertiesandsurface-related
phenomena like desorption, surface diffusion, reactivity, etc. During the preparation of the
handbook, about 3000 references have been studied starting from very early works like those
7
8 . PREFACE
of Farnsworth and co-workers and of Lander and Morrison and up to the publications of the
middle of 1993.
Since surface science is a rapidly developing branch of materials science, the present
volume reflects only the status of knowledge about surface phases on silicon to the middle of
1993. Thus, one can see that the chapters devoted to particular adsorbates differ greatly in
size and completeness depending on the extent to which these “adsorbate/Si” systems have
been investigated: While there is an abundance of data for selected adsorbates say, H, Ag,
Au, etc., there are only a few publications for the others say, Mg, Se, Hg, etc. and some
“adsorbate/Si” systems have not been studied at all say, for Be, Zr, Cd, etc.
So, the handbook not only contains the available information about surface phases on
silicon but also provides the reader with the feasibility to conclude what promising scientific
problems are waiting to be solved. We hope therefore that the present handbook will be
useful for researchers and will stimulate further investigations of surface phases on silicon.
An additional point to emphasize is that, though the data accumulated in the handbook
concernsonlysurfacesofcrystallinesilicon, manyphenomenadescribedherearealsobelieved
to be common for other possible “adsorbate/crystal” systems.
Vladivostok, December 1993 V. G. Lifshits, A. A. Saranin,
and A. V. Zotov
Acknowledgments
We have benefited greatly from the kind co-operation of many researchers well known for
their contribution to surface science who have supplied us with an up-to-date collection of
their papers on this subject. Therefore, we would like to express our gratitude to:
J. J. Boland, J. E. Demuth and R. J. Hamers, IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown
Heights, USA.
T. -C. Chiang, University of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign, Urbana, USA.
J. Derrien, CNRS, Grenoble, France.
L. C. Feldman and H -J. Gossmann, AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, USA.
G. Gewinner, Universite de Haute Alsace, Mulhouse, France.
J. A. Golovchenko, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA.
M. Hanbucken and H. Neddermeyer, Institut fur Experimentalphysik der Ruhr-Universitat,
Bochum, Germany
A. Ichimiya, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
A. Kawazu, Y. Murata and H. Tochihara, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
S. Kono, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
G. Le Lay, CRMC-2-CNRS, Marseille, France.
S. R. Leone, National Bureau of Standards, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA.
I. Lindau, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory, Stanford, USA.
R. Miranda, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
J. Nogami, Stanford University, Stanford, USA.
I. Ohdomari, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan.
M. A. Olmstead, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.
K. Oura and K. Ueda, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
G. Rossi, Laboratorium fur Festkorperphysik, Zurich, Switzerland.
F. Salvan, U. A. CNRS, Grenoble, France.
C. A. Sebenne, Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France.
K. Takayanagi, Y. Tanishiro and K. Yagi, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
C. Tatsuyama, Toyama University, Toyama, Japan.
R. I. G. Uhrberg, Linkoping Institute of Technology, Linkoping, Sweden.
T. Urano, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan.
E. D. Williams, University of Maryland, Maryland, USA.
R. S. Williams, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.
Y. Yamamoto, JEOL Ltd, Tokyo, Japan.
and many other scientists.
The preparation of this handbook would have been impossible without the continued in-
terestandtechnicalassistanceofmanypeopleemployedintheScienceandTechnologyCenter
for Semiconductor Microelectronics at the Institute of Automation and Control Processes of
the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Particularly, our sincere thanks
9
10 . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
are expressed to Dr E. A. Khramtsova for stimulating discussions and invaluable help start-
ing from the creation of the database of references and extending throughout all stages of
the manuscript preparation. Also our sincere thanks are expressed to academician V. P.
Myasnikov, Head of the Institute of Automation and Control Processes for encouragement
throughout the work. Our sincere appreciation is extended to Ms O. V. Bekhtereva for
computer typesetting the manuscript and for her useful comments on the form of material
presentationinthehandbook. TheassistanceofMrL.I.Ziegelman, MrsO.L.Tarasova, and
Mr A. B. Chub in the creation of the reference database, computer-drawing of illustrations
and processing of the manuscript is also gratefully acknowledged.
The part of our own results included in the book were obtained under support from the
Russian Foundation of the Fundamental Research.
Last but not least we wish to thank the staff of John Wiley & Sons Ltd and especially
Dr Philip Hastings (Publishing Editor), Dr Jonathan Agbenyega (Publishing Editor), Mrs
Vanessa Lutman (Editorial Assistant), and Mrs Monica Twine (Senior Production Editor)
for their help in all stages of the book preparation.