Table Of ContentSurface Mining
2nd Edition
Edited By B.A. Kennedy
SME
Surface Mining
2nd Edition
Edited By B.A. Kennedy
Published by
Society for Mining,
Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. (SME)
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Copyright © 1990 Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
Electronic edition published 2009.
ISBN 978-0-87335-303-8
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© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
Preface
The first reference text on surface mining was published by the American Institute
of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., in1968 and was appropri-
ately titled "Surface Mining." That volume was the product of the dedicated labors of
Professor Eugene P. Pfleider, his 3 coordinating editors, and 89 authors.
Now, 22 years later, the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.
(formerly the SOCiety of Mining Engineers of AIM E) is publishing a completely new
"Surface Mining" reference text. This book has involved a great deal of effort and
perseverance by the authors, chapter editors, and coordinating editors. The intent
of this revised edition was to completely rewrite, expand, and update the first edition
to provide both a reference book for the working engineer and a textbook for the
mining student. The book has taken far longer to prepare than the original ambitious
plan and almost lost some of its authors, who had already written their contributions,
when the Society had to shelve the project for two years due to financial constraints.
The Society and the profession are deeply indebted to the authors and editors
who contributed both their knowledge and an enormous amount of time to this
project. In addition, a very special acknowledgment is due to Marianne Snedeker,
formerly Manager of Publications and currently Manager of Book Publishing, and her
staff who have kept the project on course and organized during its development.
Special recognition is given the Seeley W. Mudd Memorial Fund Committee of
AIME for financial support of the publication.
We hope that this publication will prove useful to many minerals industry
professionals worldwide.
Dec. 8, 1989 Bruce A. Kennedy
Jakarta, Indonesia Editor
iii
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
Contributors
Editor
Bruce A. Kennedy
Managing Director
PT Pels art Management Services
Jakarta, Indonesia
Associate Editors
Lee R. Rice Raj K. Singhal
Lee R. Rice and Associates Energy Mines and Resources Canada
Littleton, CO Devon, AB, Canada
Editorial Board and Chapter Editors
Richard A. Bideaux Guerdon E. Jackson Robert Laurich
Consultant Management Consultant Principal Engineer
Oro Valley, AZ Tucson, AZ Lithium Corp. of America
Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Gastonia, NC
Chapter 5
Richard L. Brown Thys B. Johnson
Vice President Exploration Associate Director Donald O. Rausch
Asarco Inc. Natural Resources Research Institute Retired
New York, NY University of Minnesota Lakewood, CO
Chapter 2 Duluth, MN Chapter 8
Chapter 6
Hugh W. Evans Lee W. Saperstein
Consultant Bruce A. Kennedy Chairman
Union Terminal Assn., National Assn. Managing Director Dept. of Mining Engineering
of 10th Mountain Division PT Pelsart Management Services University of Kentucky
Cincinnati, OH Jakarta, Indonesia Lexington, KY
Chapter 6 Chapters 1 and 9
Robert F. Winkle
Vice President
Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc.
Tucson, AZ
Chapter 7
Authors
Aiken, George E. Socorro, NM Betzler, William F.
Retired Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.3 Retired
Formerly with Kaiser Engineers, Inc. Minnesota Dept. of Revenue
Oakland, CA Bauer, Alan* Buhl, MN
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.3 Professor Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4
Dept. of Mining Engineering
Armstrong, David Queens' University Bideaux, Richard A.
Mintec, Inc. Kingston, ON, Canada Consultant
Tucson, AZ Chap. 6, Secs. 6.1.2 and 6.2.1 Oro Valley, AZ
Chap. 5, Sec. 5.1 Chap. 3, Sec. 3.1
Bentzen, Edwin H., III
Ash, Richard L. Senior Processing Engineer Bolin, David S.*
Retired Ore Sorters Inc. Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc.
Formerly Professor Lakewood, CO Lakewood, CO
Dept. of Mining Engineering Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10 Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.1
University of Missouri-Rolla
Rolla, MO Berry, Charles W. Bohnet, Ernest L.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.2.2 Professor President
Mining Engineering Dept. Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc.
Barker James M. University of Utah Lakewood, CO
Industrial Minerals Geologist Salt Lake City, UT Chap. 5, Secs. 5. 4 and 5.6
New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Chap. 8, Sec. 8.2
Mineral Resources Bolles, John L.
iv
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
CONTRIBUTORS v
Retired Elliott City, MD Fletcher, David
Silver City, NM Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.2 Mineral Economics Dept.
Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4 Colorado School of Mines
Cole, Clifford F. Golden, CO
Borquez, Guillermo V. Senior Project Manager Chap. 8, Sec. 8.2
Bechtel, Inc. TRC Environmental Consultants, Inc.
San Francisco, CA Englewood, CO Gilliss, Archie M.
Chap. 4, Sec. 4.2 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.2 Falkirk Mining Co.
North American Coal Corp.
Boyd. James W. Crosby, William A. Bismarck, NO
President President Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.4
John T. Boyd Co. Mining Resource Engineering Ltd.
Pittsburgh, PA Kingston, ON, Canada Goldman, Harold B.
Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.3 Chap. 6, Secs. 6.1.2 and 6.2.1 Geological Consultants, Inc.
San Francisco, CA
Brazda, Lois L. Dibble, M.F. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.23
Amoco Corp. Consulting Engineer
Chicago,IL Lakeland, FL Goodner, William R.
Chap. 4, Sec. 4.3 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.20 Stearns Catalytic
Denver, CO
Breeding, William H. Donoso, Enrique Morel Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.4
W.H. Breeding & ASSOCiates, Inc. President
Summit, NJ Chuquicamata Div. Goodrich, R.F.
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.7 CODELCO-Chile Reclamation Engineer
Santiago, Chile IMC Fertilizer, Inc.
Brobst, Donald A. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.6 Bartow,FL
Consulting Geologist Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.4
Reston, VA Dorling, J.P.
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.2 Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc Grandt, Alten F.
Boise, 10 Director of Reclamation
Brown, Richard L. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Peabody Coal Co.
Vice President Exploration St. Louis, MO
Asarco. Inc. Duncan, Larry D. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.7
New York, NY Stearns Catalytic
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.1 Denver, CO Grundstedt, Steven R.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.3 Mining Analyst
Burns, Charles L. Morgan, Paul & Co.
Vice President Dupree, Annette C. Sydney, NSW, Australia
Government Relations North Quincy, MA Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6
Phelps Dodge Corp. Chap. 8, Sec. 8.4
Washington, DC Gunnett, John W.
Chap. 8, Sec. 8.9 Elayer, R.W. Skelly and Loy
Manager-Geology Harrisburg, PA
Call, Richard D. Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.3
President Boise, 10
Call and Nicholas Inc. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Hardie, Byron S.
Tucson, AZ Geological Consultant
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.8 Elbrond, Jorgen Tucson, AZ
Professor Chap. 2, Sec. 2.3
Canton, Perry A. Dept. of Mineral Engineering
Minnesota Dept. of Natural Resources Ecole Poly technique Hartman, Howard L.
S1. Paul, MN Montreal, PQ, Canada Retired
Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.9 University of Alabama
Consultant
Carr, Donald D. Files, Thomas I. Carmichael, CA
Branch Head Project Manager Chap. 6, Sec. 6.1.1
Mineral Resources & Data Marion Div., Dresser Industries Inc.
Management Marion,OH Hays, Ronald M.
Indiana Geological Survey Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Mining and Metallurgical Consultant
Bloomington, IN Ronald M. Hays and Associates
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.11 Fitch, David C. Edina, MN
Manager, Southwest Exploration Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.4
Clar, Michael L. Hecla Mining Co. Chap. 6, Secs. 6.5.2, 6.5.5, 6.5.6
Secretary-Treasurer Reno, NV 6.5.7
Engineering Technologies Chap. 2, Sec. 2.4
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
vi SURFACE MINING
Hemenway, David S. Mining Engineering Dept. Homestake Mining Co.
Senior Counsel Colorado School of Mines Lead, SO
Peabody Holding Co., Inc. Golden, CO Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4
St. Louis, MO Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.3
Chap. 8, Sec. 8.7 Lowell, J. David
Kadey, Frederic L., Jr. Geological Consultant
Hennessy, J. Allen Retired Lowell Mineral Exploration
Principal Mining Geologist Lantana, FL Nogales, AZ
Mining & Metals Div. Chap. 2, Secs. 2.10.6, 2.10.19 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.2
Bechtel Civil & Minerals, Inc.
San Francisco, CA Kahle, Michael B. Madson, James L.
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.8 Director of Marketing Manager, Morenci Branch
Phillips Coal Co. Phelps Dodge Corp.
Henning, Dieter Richardson, TX Morenci, AZ
Reinbraun-Consulting GmbH Chap. 6, Sec. 6.14 Chap. 9, Sec. 9.4
Rheinbraun K61n, Germany
Chap. 9, Sec. 9.2 Kennedy, Bruce A. Malouf, E.E.
Managing Director Consultant
Heyborne, L.S. PT Pelsart Management Services Salt Lake City, UT
Manager Jakarta, Indonesia Chap. 6, Sec. 6.9.1
Mining Operations Chap. 9, Sec. 9.1
Mine and Plant Operations Group Marsden, Ralph W.*
Bechtel Civil & Minerals Inc. Kerch, Richard L. Professor Emeritus
San Francisco, CA Consolidation Coal Co. Dept. of Geology
Chap. 8, Sec. 8.5 Pittsburgh, PA University of Minnesota
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.2 Duluth, MN
Hoffman, Clarence W. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.5
Performance Associates, Inc. Knudsen, Harvey P.
Danville, CA Associate Professor Marshall, Darryl A.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.11.2 Mining Engineering Dept. Fluor Daniel
Montana College of Mineral Science & Redwood City, CA
Hoyle, Daniel Rodriguez Technology Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6
Mineral Industry Consultant Butte, MT
Formerly Vice President Chap. 3, Sec. 3.2 Mathieson, Graham
Southern Peru Copper Corp. General Manager
Lima, Peru Kunze, Lutz Griffin Coal Mining Co., Ltd.
Chap. 9, Sec. 9.5 Vice President Perth, WA, Australia
Smith-Emery Co. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.3
Huber, Douglas W. Los Angeles, CA
Mining Adviser Chap. 5, Sec. 5.6 McCarter, M.K.
USAID/ISLAMABAD Agency for Inter- Professor
national Development Leroy, A.J. Mining Engineering Dept.
US Dept. of State Palabora Mining Co., Ltd. University of Utah
Washington, DC Phalaborwa, Rep. of South Africa Salt Lake City, UT
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.1 Chap. 9, Sec. 9.3 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.9.2
Humphrey, James D. Levitt, Brian J. Mclndoo, Robert N.
Chief Engineer - Marketing Develop- Materials Handling Engineer Babbitt, MN
ment Stearns Catalytic Chap. 6, Sec. 6.11.1
Marion Div., Dresser Industries, Inc. Denver, CO
Marion,OH Chap. 6, Sec. 6.5.3 McKee, Guy W.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4 Professor of Agronomy
Li, Ta M. The Pennsylvania State University
Hutnik, Russell J. Chief Operating Officer University Park, PA
Professor of Forest Ecology Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.6
The Pennsylvania State University Lakewood, CO
University Park, PA Chap. 1, Sec. 1.2 McKereghan, G.F.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.6 International Minerals & Chemical Co.
LiII, John W. Bartow, FL
Jackson, Guerdon E. American Barrick Resources Corp. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.4
Mining Consultant Toronto, ON, Canada
Tucson, AZ Chap. 9, Sec. 9.3 McKie, P.W.
Chap. 4, Sec. 4.1 Director
Loving, Gary A. Mine & Excavated Structures Design
Johnson, Wesley G. General Manager Morrison-Knudsen Engineers, Inc.
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
CONTRIBUTORS vii
Boise,ID Procurement Services Associates Chief Geological Engineer
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.9 Stockton, CA Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co.
Chap. 8, Sec. 8.8 Claypool, AZ
Meek, FA, Jr. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.8
Upshur Mine Complex Pratt, Morton E.
Enoxy Coal Inc. Retired Snedeker, Marianne
Buckhannon, WV Formerly Executive Engineer Manager of Book Publishing
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.7.1 Utah International Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and
Moraga, CA Exploration, Inc.
Misagi, Leo Chap. 9, Sec. 9.8 Littleton, CO
Head Chap. 1, Secs. 1.1 and 1.2
MSHA Academy Presley. Gordon C.
US Dept. of Labor Consultant Sullivan, Ruth
Beckley, WV Englewood. CO Enoxy Coal, Inc.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.12.2 Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10 Cincinnati. OH
Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.2
Morey, Philip G. Ramani, Raja V.
President Professor and Head Sweigard. Richard J.
Jval, Inc. Mineral Engineering Dept. Assistant Professor
Redwood City, CA The Pennsylvania State University Mining Engineering Dept.
Chap. 5, Sec. 5.7 University Park, PA University of Kentucky
Chap. 6, Secs. 6.5.1, 6.5.8. 6.6.2 Lexington, KY
Morris, Jerald S. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.2
Vice President, Operations Rausch, Donald O.
Central Stone Co. Retired Thomas, Stephen W.
Hannibal, MO Lakewood, CO Manager, Acquisitions and Develop-
Chap. 8, Sec. 8.6 Chap. 8, Sec. 8.1 ment
Cyprus Gold Co.
Mortensen, Dennis K. Reed, Ronald G. Englewood, CO
Vice President, General Manager Pincock, Allen & Holt, Inc. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.5
Cyprus Miami Mining Corp. Lakewood, CO
Claypool, AZ Chap. 5, Sec. 5.5 Thompson, James V.
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.10 Consultant
Rendu, Jean-Michel Lafayette, CA
Olson, Richard H. Newmont Gold Co. Chap. 4, Sec. 4.2
President Denver, CO
Industrial Minerals Evaluations, Inc. Chap. 3, Sec. 3.3 Thornburg, H. Andrew
Golden CO Vice Chairman
Chap. 2, Secs. 2.10, 2.10.24, 2.10.28 Ritchie, M.1. Security Pacific Capital Markets Group
Pathfinder Mines Corp. Los Angeles, CA
Parker, Harry M. San Francisco, CA Chap. 4, Sec. 4.3
Vice President Chap. 9, Sec. 9.7
Mineral Resource Development, Inc. Ulatowski, Tomek
San Mateo, CA Rogowski, A.S. Senior Vice President
Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.2 Soil Scientist Crocker National Bank
US Dept. of Agriculture San Francisco, CA
Parkison, Gary Agricultural Research Service/North Chap. 4, Sec. 4.4
Westmont Mining Inc. Atlantic Area
Tucson, AZ University Park, PA Vickers, Edward
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.27 Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.5 Kailua Kona, HI
Chap. 4, Sec. 4.4
Parr, Clayton J. Saperstein, Lee W.
Kimball, Parr, Crockett & Waddoups Chairman Voige, Raymond C.
Salt Lake City, UT Dept. of Mining Engineering Mine Safety Appliances Co.
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.11 University of Kentucky Pittsburgh, PA
Lexington, KY Chap. 6, Sec. 6.13
Phelps, L.B. Chap. 6 .• Sec. 6.6.1
Assistant Professor, Mining Waleski, William E.
Engineering Sargent, Fred B. Belle Ayre Mine, Western Div.
The Pennsylvania State University Vice President, Sales & Marketing Amax Coal Co.
University Park, PA Marion Div., Dresser Industries. Inc. Gillette, WY
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.3 Marion,OH Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.4
Chap. 6, Sec. 6.4
Plute, Daniel P. Waples, Bee R., Jr.*
President Savely, James P. Vice President
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
viii SURFACE MINING
Mineral Div. California University of Pennsylvania Woodring, Kenneth
Kaiser Engineers, Inc. California, PA President
Oakland, CO Chap. 6, Sec. 6.6.5 Hobet Mining Co.
Chap. 4, Sec. 4.1 Madison, WV
Weise, Hans Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.2
Ward, Willard E., II Reinbraun-Consulting GmbH
Geologist Reinbraun Koln, Germany Yu, A.T.
Energy Resources Div. Chap. 9, Sec. 9.2 Retired
Geological Survey of Alabama Formerly President
Tuscaloosa, AL Wendt, Clancy J. ORBA Corp.
Chap. 2, Sec. 2.6 District Manager Clearwater, FL
Westmont Mining, Inc. Chap. 6, Sec. 6.10
Ward, Milton H. Sparks, NV
President and Chief Operating Officer Chap. 3, Sec. 3.4.5 Zdunczyk, Mark J.
Freeport McMoran Senior Geologist
New Orleans, LA Whittle, Jeff Dunn Geoscience Corp.
Chap. 8, Sec. 8.3 Director Albany, NY
Whittle Programming Pty. Ud. Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.22
Weber, Kenneth J. North Balwyn, Vic., Australia
Consultant Chap. 5, Sec. 5.3 Zimmer, G.S.
Iron Mountain, MI President
Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2 Wicken, Oscar M. GSZ Inc.
SRM Associates Tucson, AZ
Weinrich, B.E. West Palm Beach, FL Chap. 7, Sec. 7.2.5
Assistant Professor of Mathematics Chap. 2, Sec. 2.10.13
*D eceased
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
Table of Contents
Preface • Bruce A. Kennedy..... ..... ......... ...... ..... ..... ..... ....... ....... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ............ ....... ..... ...... ..... ..... ... iii
Contributors. .. ...................................................................................... ............................... .............. .... ..... ... iv
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 History of Mining' M. Snedeker .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Current and Future Trends • T.M Li, M. Snedeker ............................................................... .. 8
Chapter 2. Exploration and Geology Techniques
2.1 Overview of Exploration· R.L. Brown .............. .................. ..................... ........... ...... ............... 15
2.2 Base Metal Exploration and Geology • J.D. Lowell ................................................................. 22
2.3 Precious Metals Exploration and Geology' B.S. Hardie ......................................................... 28
2.4 Uranium Exploration and Geology' D.C. Fitch ....................................................................... 35
2.5 Iron Ore Exploration and Geology· R. W. Marsden ................................................................. 48
2.6 Coal· W. E. Ward, " .. .......... ...... ....... ........... ...... ...... ............ ...... ...... ........... ..... .... ............ ........ 65
2.7 Placer· W.H. Breeding............................................................................................................ 77
2.8 Tar Sands Exploration and Geology' J.A. Hennessy................... .......... ............... ................. 86
2.9 Oil Shale Exploration and Geology· R. W. Elayer, I.P. Dorfing, F. W. McKie ........................... 91
2.10 Industrial Minerals, R.H. Olson, E.H. Bentzen, III, G.C. Presley ............................................ 105
2.10.1 Asbestos .................................................................................................................................. 105
2.10.2 Barium and Strontium Minerals' D.A. Brobst.. .................................... ............. ..... ................. 116
2.10.3 Borate Exploration J.M Barker................. ......... ........... ............... ............................................ 120
2.10.4 Chromite .................................................................................................................................. 126
2.10.5 Clays ........................................................................................................................................ 131
2.10.6 Diatomite· F.L. Kadey, Jr. ....................................................................................................... 153
2.10.7 Feldspar ................................................................................................................................... 159
2.10.8 Fluorspar ........ ...... ............ ................. ........ ...... ................ .......... ............. ................................. 163
2.10.9 Gypsum and Anhydrite ............................................................................................................ 173
2.10.10 Kyanite and Related Minerals .................................................................................................. 181
2.10.11 Limestone and Dolomite • D.O. Carr ....................................................................................... 185
2.10.12 Lithium Raw Materials ............................................................................................................. 194
2.10.13 Magnesite' O.M. Wicken .............. ................ .............. ..... .......................... ...... ............ ........... 198
2.10.14 Manganese .............................................................................................................................. 201
2.10.15 Mica ......................................................................................................................................... 204
2.10.16 Natural Abrasives. .............. .......... ...... ........... ..... ........ ..... ...... ......................... ...... ........ ..... ...... 209
2.10.17 Nepheline Syenite ................. ........ ........... ........... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..................... ..... ..... ........ 214
2.10.18 Olivine ...................................................................................................................................... 218
2.10.19 Perlite' F.L. Kadey, Jr. ............................................................................................................ 221
2.10.20 Phosphate Rock· MF. Dibble ................................................................................................ 224
2.10.21 Pyrophyllite .............................................................................................................................. 230
2.10.22 Quartz/Silica Sand· MJ. Zdunczyk ........................................................................................ 235
2.10.23 Sand and Gravel· H.B. Goldman.. ............... ...... ..... ............. ...... ............................................. 237
2.10.24 Talc' R.H. Olson ..................................................................................................................... 242
2.10.25 Titanium ................................................................................................................................... 246
2.10.26 Vermiculite ....................... ............. ..... ................ ..... ...... ........ ..... ..... ..... ............................... ..... 260
2.10.27 Wollastonite' G. Parkison ..... ............. ...... ........................... ........................... ...... ................... 262
2.10.28 Zeolites' R.H. Olson .... ............... ...... ............ ..................................... ...... .................. ............. 266
2.10.29 Zirconium/Hafnium ......... ............ ...... ................ ..... ........ .......... .......... ...... ......................... ...... 268
2.11 Acquisition and Exercise of Rights to Use Land in Connection with Surface Mining
Operations' C.J. Parr..................................... ............. ..................... .................... .... ........ 273
ix
© 1990 by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration.
All rights reserved. Electronic edition published 2009.
