Table Of ContentI
n 1947, a remarkable group of
individuals achieved what many
thought was impossible: breaking the
‘sound barrier’. Because of their work,
supersonic flight became a reality. Today,
the military aircrews who routinely fly
near and beyond the speed of sound and
the passengers who relax in luxurious
comfort as their jumbo jetliners speed
them to their destinations fly in the wake
of these courageous pioneers, some of
whom gave their lives so that high-speed
flight might be born.
Supersonic Flight is the story of the most
important revolution in aviation history
between the Wright Brothers’ first flight
and the first voyage into outer space. It
recounts the story of the Bell X-1 in
which ‘Chuck’ Yeager successfully ‘broke’
the speed of sound and of the Douglas
D-558-2 – the first aircraft to reach twice
the speed of sound.
Dr Hallion has updated what has come
to be regarded as a classic history of the
first supersonic flight using primary
research materials and interviews with
many of the key participants. Extensively
illustrated with rare photographs, it is a
dramatic and authoritative account of how
aviation moved from the era of the
propeller-driven aeroplane into the era of
the high-performance jet.
Supersonic
FLIGHT
Breaking
the Sound Barrier
and Beyond
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Supersonic
FLIGHT
Breaking
the Sound Barrier
and Beyond
The Story of the Bell X-1
and Douglas D-558
RICHARD P HALLION
Brassey’s
London • Washington
Copyright 1997 Richard P Hallion
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
elecrtrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
First English Edition 1972
Revised 1997
UK editorial offices: Brassey’s, 33 John Street, London WC1N 2AT
UK orders: Marston Book Services, PO Box 269, Abingdon, OX14 4SD
North American orders: Brassey’s Inc., PO Box 960,
Herndon, VA 20172, USA
Richard P Hallion has asserted his moral right to be identified as
the author of this work.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
available
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 1 85753 253 8 Hardcover
Typeset by M Rules in Sabon
Printed in Great Britain by Redwood Books, Trowbridge
Contents
Acknowledgements 8
Introduction to the 1972 Edition 10
(by Michael Collins and Melvin B Zisfein)
Introduction to the 1997 Edition 17
Prologue 22
Part One: Forging the Tools:
Developing the Bell X-1and Douglas D-558
1: Making a Revolution: 26
The Need for a Transonic Research Aeroplane
2: Winged Bullet 50
The Design Development of the Bell XS-1
3: Flying Test Tube: 72
The Design Development of the Douglas D-558
Part Two: Through the ‘Sound Barrier’
4: Prelude to Mach 1: 116
The Bell XS-1 Contractor Programme
5: Beyond Mach 1: 136
The Air Force and NACA XS-1 Programme
6: The D-558-1 Skystreak Flight Programme 164
Part Three: Through Mach 2
7: Nudging Towards Twice the Speed of Sound 195
8: Mach 2 – and Beyond 210
Epilogue 231
Appendix One: 238
Technical Specifications for the X-1s and D-558s
Appendix Two: 243
Flight Chronicles of the Research Aeroplanes
Bibliographical Note 268
Notes 272
Acknowledgements
The following were the individuals whose assistance was critical to the
preparation of the 1972 edition of this work. Time has not dimmed but only
increased the appreciation I have for their help.
It would have been impossible to write this book without the generous co-
operation of many individuals and organisations. Special thanks are due to the
staff of the NASA Historical Office and the Smithsonian Institution for their
gracious help through the years. I am particularly grateful to the late Dr Eugene
M Emme, the first NASA Historian, his deputy, Dr Frank W Anderson, Lee
Saegesser, the NASA archivist, and Carrie Karegeannis, all of the NASA
Historical Office; Michael Collins, the Director of the National Air and Space
Museum, and his deputy, the late Melvin B Zisfein. I also want to acknowledge
the assistance given to me by staff members of the Air Force Historical Office
(now the Air Force History Support Office), Air Force Museum, Air Force
Systems Command (now Air Force Materiel Command), the NASA Langley
Research Center, the National Archives, and Naval Air Systems Command. I
wish to thank especially the late Dr Carl Berger, Office of Air Force History; the
late Dr Donald R McVeigh, historian of Air Force Systems Command; Robert
W Mulac and Neva B Brooks, NASA Langley Research Center, Dr Lee M
Pearson, historian of Naval Air Systems Command; and Ralph Jackson and
James Love of the NASA Flight Research Center. I especially appreciate the
assistance given by Russell Bourne, Consultant on Special Publications,
Smithsonian Institution, and Louis S Casey, the former Acting Assistant
Director, and Archives Assistant Robert B Wood, National Air and Space
Museum.
The faculty of the Department of History, University of Maryland, provided
patient counselling and thoughtful advice that I found most helpful. My debt to
them is great. I benefited from consultations with Dr Richard E Thomas, former
Head of the Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland,
who directed my initial research in this area, and with Dr Jewel B Barlow,
Assistant professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering. Their advice and
encouragement were invaluable.
I wish to thank the following participants in the supersonic breakthrough
who assisted me in research for this book through interviews, correspondence,
or both: Milton B Ames, Neil A Armstrong, John V Becker, Ralph P Bielat,
Clinton E Brown, Robert A Champine, A Scott Crossfield, Leo J Devlin, Jr,
Captain Walter S Diehl, USN (ret.), Macon C Ellis, Jr, Paul Emmons, Richard H
Frost, William G Gisel, Robert R Gilruth, Benson Hamlin, Edward H
Heinemann, Robert A Hoover, Dr Abraham Hyatt, Ezra Kotcher, Axel T
Mattson, Jean A Roche, Dr L Eugene Root, A M O Smith, Stanley W Smith,
Robert M Stanley, John Stack, Dr Floyd L Thompson, Thomas A Toll, Gerald
M Truszynski, Harold Turner, Joseph Vensel, Robert A Wolf, and Brigadier
General Charles E ‘Chuck’ Yeager, USAF (ret.)
A Note to Readers of the 1997 Edition
With regard to this edition, I wish to thank those who have encouraged me to –
indeed, in some cases, insisted that I – reissue this work, particularly Dr John
Anderson, Chairman Emeritus of the Department of Aerospace Engineering at
the University of Maryland; Dr Jim Young and the staff of the Edwards AFB
history office (particularly Joyce Baker and Cheryl Gumm, and Jim Young’s
predecessor J Ted Bear); Lieutenant Colonel William ‘Flaps’ Flanagan, USAF
(ret.) of the Northrop-Grumman Corporation; Sharon Wanglin; Harry Kotcher;
Tony Landis; Mike Machat; Brian Nicklas; Curtis Peebles; Margaret Woolams;
Joe Cannon; the late Milt Thompson; the late Dr Walter C Williams, former
director of the NACA High-Speed Flight Station; and – one who played a key
role in making this edition possible – Colonel Donald S Lopez, USAF, (ret.), the
Deputy Director of the National Air and Space Museum.
Others who were helpful or encouraging, or who furnished critical insights or
bits of information include the late Captain Carl T ‘Tex’ Birdwell, USN (ret.);
the late Bob Perry; Roger Bilstein; Colonel Ken Chilstrom, USAF (ret.);
Chalmers H ‘Slick’ Goodlin; Frederick C Durant, III; Alexis ‘Dusty’ Doster;
Frank H Winter; Greg Kennedy; Lou Purnell; Major General Peter ‘Peet’
Odgers, USAF (ret.); Major General Phil Conley, USAF (ret.); Pete Adolph; Hal
Andrews; Harry Gann; Peter Bowers; Diana Cornellise; Dave Menard; Wes
Henry; the late Chuck Sewell; Ray Wagner; Bill Immenschuh; Bill Chana; Tom
Smith; Colonel William J ‘Pete’ Knight, USAF (ret.); Colonel Jim McFeeters,
USAF (ret.); Tom Oldfield; Air Vice Marshal Paddy Harbison, RAF (ret.); Air
Commodore Alan Merriman, RAF; the late Air Commodore Allen H Wheeler,
RAF (ret.); Sir Morian Morgan; Professor W A Mair; R P Probert; Roland
Beamont; the late Dr John Fozard; Graham Weller; and Darryl Cott. As always,
I owe a very special debt to some especially close friends and colleagues: Richard
and Jeanne ‘Mr and Mrs B’ Blalock, and Wilbur ‘Bill’ Bettis of Nieuport 17,
and, with particularly fond memories, the late Art Neff of Pasadena, whose
never-failing public-mindedness, graciousness and unselfishness made the word
‘gentleman’ always seem utterly inadequate.
Again, from the perspective of a quarter-century after writing the first edition
of this work, I am astonished – and very grateful – for how generous (and
patient) the veterans of the supersonic breakthrough were in granting a very
junior historian their time and assistance. It is to them, on the 50th anniversary
of the first supersonic flight, that this book is dedicated, with affection and
always, respect.
Introduction to the
1972 Edition
Michael Collins: Director,
National Air and Space Museum
Melvin B Zisfein: Deputy Director,
National Air and Space Museum
The first supersonic flight and the first trip to the moon had many things in
common. Both were produced by the American aerospace industry, both
required quantum jumps in many areas of engineering and both required the
utmost in pilot training and human and physical support systems. Most
significantly, supersonic flight and space travel were both born of the vision of
people who dared to assert that ‘it could be done’, who had to prove repeatedly
to sceptics that it might be worth doing and who were harassed from start to
finish (but particularly at the start) by many and variously oriented prophets of
failure.
In order to appreciate the Bell X-1 achievement, let us examine the problems
of flying faster than sound and review the pitfalls as they might have been
foreseen on the ‘before’ side of the achievement. We will find that in the mid-
1940s it was not difficult to extrapolate existing knowledge into many fears, few
entirely groundless.
We are considering in this study manned, powered flight in a lifting vehicle
(an aeroplane) through the air at speeds faster than sound travels through air.
Of all the possible limiting speeds, there were good reasons to select the speed of
sound as the upper limit. Ahead of a lifting wing there is an upwash, a current of
air particles moving upward in anticipation of the approach of the wing. This
flow pattern prevails at all speeds below the speed of sound. The particles are
‘informed’ by pressure waves emanating from the wing. The pressure waves that
move the air ahead of the wing travel at the speed of sound.
If the wing in our example then speeds up so that it is moving at or above the
velocity of sound, the pressure waves that previously ‘warned’ the air ahead of
the wing’s coming are overtaken by the wing itself.
In the early 1940s this chain of reasoning led to dire predictions about
supersonic flight. Pilots blamed sonic ‘bunching up’ of air for the frightening
