Supersonic Combustion Of A Scramjet Engine Using Hydrogen Fuel In Shock Tunnel

2018·3.3 MB·English

by  AIAA Journal, Volume 56, Number 9, September 2018

AIAAJOURNAL
Supersonic Combustion of a Scramjet Engine Using Hydrogen Fuel
in Shock Tunnel
K.Srinivasan,∗PraveenK.Maurya,†KumarAbhishek,‡S.L.N.Desikan,§andB.Murugan¶
VikramSarabhaiSpaceCentre,Thiruvananthapuram695022,India
DOI:10.2514/1.J056761
Experimentswerecarriedoutonascaledmodelofscramjetenginewithgaseoushydrogenasafuelina1m
combustion-drivenshocktunnel.Thesimulatedenthalpywas2.6MJ∕kg,atafreestreamMachnumberof6.8with
varyingstagnationpressures(110–190bar),dynamicpressures(72–130kPa),andequivalenceratio(0.24–1.16).
Detailedstudieswerecarriedouttotailortheshocktunnel.ExperimentswerecarriedoutwithairandN asthetest
2
gaseswithhydrogen(H )injectiontobringoutthedifferencebetweenreactiveandnonreactivecases.Pressure
2
measurement along the centerline of the engine and heat flux (through temperature measurements) inside the
1
6 combustorwascarried.Theoccurrenceofsupersoniccombustionwasascertainedthroughpressuremeasurements
7
6
5 wherenoupstreaminfluencewasseenaheadofthestrutinjectorandthesamewascorroboratedbyheatflux
0
1.J measurements.Thepressureriseduetosupersoniccombustiondownstreamofthefuelinjectionwasnearlythree
514/ timesascomparedwithnonreactivecase.Forthecurrentcase,whenthecombustorinletpressure(Pc)exceeds1bar,
0.2 asharpriseinthepressuresignaturewasobserveddownstreamoffuelinjection,whereasnosuchmarkedtracewas
OI: 1 seenwhenPcisbelow1bar.
D
org | Nomenclature i = ignition
2018 | http://arc.aiaa. dCHAaCfdP ====== ccheaspoonryeeeetdaheffrffadaoiiluccfpoiilyteefihc,nnseJttod/ioouihnaffnejmieddpgce,irhsettmocetshrrso∕,uafsmrrtgeh2e(cid:1)ePm−odPe∞l,∕mq∞(cid:3) imrsϕj ===== fmccseuhhoqieoenuxlmcditviukiniatrcijwleoeaenclantvscrieeoeanarcattptiiorosonuprefratciees/at stagnation point/primary
21, h = specificenthalpy,J∕kg 0 = stagnationconditions/initialconditions
uly L = lengthofthemodel,m 1 = initialconditioninthedrivenportionoftheshocktube
on J M = Machnumber 2 = conditionbehindtheshockwave
CHEN PMc == cporensvseucrtei,veNM∕mac2hnumber 34 == ccoonnddiittiioonnssbinehthineddtrhiveecrotunbtaectsurface
MUEN Pq-L == pdryensasmurieclpernegstshursec,aPlea 5∞∕inf == pfrreoepsetrretiaemsicnotnhdeitrieofnlesctedzoneofshocktunnel
U T = temperature,K
T
DER tU == tviemloec,istyo/rspmesed,m∕s I. Introduction
EK W = widthoftheinternalduct,mm SUPERSONICcombustionramjet(scramjet)isbeingconsidered
TH X = axialdistancealongtheenginefromboundary-layer as aviable propulsion system for hypersonic vehiclessuch as
O missilesandtransportpassengervehiclesforlong-rangeoperation.
LI splitter
ed by BIB ΔαγQ === strhapteeirocmifoaifclsdhpieefafcutifsaiidcvdihtiyteiao(tkns∕((ρJC∕Cpk∕PgC))/va)ngleofattack,deg Ffsiuurcsrtcthesestrsa,fguietlnisoefsbsetlwoiefovetshdpeatsoceebveteouhsiocerldebsiatsd(aeTplSoeTwnOd-cs)oovstneahctihcceleessds.etHvoeoslpwoapecmveeeirnn,ttthhoeef
wnload ρηm == mdeinxsinitgy,ekffgi∕cmien3cy esyffsitceimentcaptreorpsuulpsiotonMsys(cid:4)tem5,.wAhseorentthoedatuyr,btohjeetapvlaaiylasbalevpitraolpruollseioinn
o subsonicandmoderatesupersonicregimes.Ontheotherhand,ramjet
D
engine is the only solution for 3≤M≤5. In both the cases,
Subscripts
combustionoccursatsubsonicMachnumbers,leadstoconsiderable
a = air lossintotalpressure,andincreasesthecombustorinlettemperature.
c = combustor Asaconsequence,thepotentialtoaddenergytotheflowreducesand
f = fuel thepropulsionsystemcannolongerproducesignificantthrust[1,2].
Hence, to achievehypersonic Mach numbers (M>5), supersonic
combustionramjettechnologyisbeingdeveloped,wheretheheatis
addedtotheflowatsupersonicMachnumber,whichinturnreduces
Received28September2017;revisionreceived28March2018;accepted
forpublication4May2018;publishedonline16July2018.Copyright©2018 the combustor inlet temperature so as to propel the vehicle up to
bytheAmericanInstituteofAeronauticsandAstronautics,Inc.Allrights M(cid:4)16. Though the scramjet technology is very attractive, its
reserved. All requests for copying and permission to reprint should be developmentmainlydependsonefficientfuel-airmixing,ignition,
submitted to CCC at www.copyright.com; employ the ISSN 0001-1452 flame holding, its stabilization, and stable combustion owing to
(print)or1533-385X(online)toinitiateyourrequest.SeealsoAIAARights millisecond residence time of the supersonic flow inside the
andPermissionswww.aiaa.org/randp. combustor.
*WindTunnelDataDivision;[email protected].
Many works are carried out in the past to characterize efficient
†Hypersonic Wind Tunnel Division; [email protected],
mixingschemessuchasinjectionoffuelnormal,oblique,orparallel
[email protected].
‡SupersonicWindTunnelDivision;[email protected]. tothemainstream[3–8].Thoughnormalinjectionprovidesefficient
§Wind Tunnel Data Division; [email protected], desikan_sln@ mixing and high level of penetration, the associated total pressure
yahoo.com(CorrespondingAuthor). lossismore,whichcanbereducedsubstantiallythroughobliqueor
¶HypersonicWindTunnelDivision;[email protected]. parallelinjection.Severaldevicesareproposedforenhancedmixing
ArticleinAdvance / 1
2 ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL.
withreducedtotalpressurelosses,suchasrampmixers[9–12],cavity studies include thetailoring ofthe shocktunnel,autoignition, and
[13–20], rearward facing step [21–24], pylon [25,26], and strut the demonstration of the supersonic combustion through pressure
[27–30].Ontheotherhand,cavitycanalsobeconsideredforignition, measurementsandheatflux(throughtemperature)measurements.
flameholding,andstablecombustionduetoitslongresidencetime
andlowdragpenalty[31],operabilityrangeofignitionandblowout
II. ExperimentalDetails
limits[32–34],andstablecombustion[35–38].Nevertheless,strut
A. Combustion-DrivenShockTunnel
injectorsarethemostpromisingcandidatebecauseinjectionoffuel
intothecoreofthemainstreamleadstorapidanduniformmixing, Theexperimentsarecarriedoutin1m(themaximumnozzleexit
anditsabilityonflameholdingduetothepresenceofre-circulation diameterthatcanbeusedis1m)combustion-drivenshocktunnel
regionatthebaseofthestrut. (Fig.1)attheVikramSarabhaiSpaceCentre.Thefacilityconsistsof
Toachievesupersoniccombustioninatypicalscramjetengineon a4-m-long,0.18-m-internal-diameterdrivertubeanda18-m-long,
ground-basedfacilities,itisessentialtohaveefficientmixingschemes, 0.18-m-internal-diameterdriventube.Atotalof24sparkplugsare
positionedinadoublehelixfashioninthedriversection.Providing
thermal management including thermal choking, aerodynamic
the spark plugs in helical fashion [50] ensures uniform spacing
shaping toreducethe skinfriction,and soon [2].Because ofhigh
both radially and axially, which promotes deflagration mode of
temperatureandpressure,theenergyrequiredtoduplicatetheflight
conditionsongroundisenormousandisoftheorderof100 MW∕m2 combustion.The detonation in shocktunnel occurs through DDT.
[39].Hence,experimentsarecarriedoutin“connectedpipemode,” WhenthemixtureisignitedusingasinglesparkplugandiftheL∕D
isgreaterthan15,throughDDT,detonationoccurs.Providingsparks
761 wchhaemrebearsuinpleertsocnoincdnitoiozznlseitshruosuegdhtovditeialitveedrtahirerheeqauteirre.dTchoomugbuhsttihoins at uniform spacing avoids DDTand ensures deflagration mode of
056 methodgivestherequiredconditionsforcombustor,theuncertainties combustion.Allthesparkplugsareignitedsimultaneouslytoensure
1.J associatedwithvitiatedair,nonuniformityoftheflowduringintake, deflagration mode of combustion. A 10° semidivergent conical
4/ nozzle having anozzleexitdiameter 0.65 mis usedtogenerate a
251 oncomingboundary-layereffect,andtheconsequenceofturbulence freestreamMachnumberof6.8(cid:5)0.15inthetestsection.Thetunnel
0. need to be studied. These uncertainties can be evaded by direct
OI: 1 integrationofthesupersoniccombustorwithnozzle,airintake,and isstagdneasitgionnedpretossugreenoefra1te2MaJm∕kaxgiamnudm30e0nbthaar,lpreyspaencdtivaelym.aximum
D isolator with air as aworking medium. This is possible in impulse
org | facilities like shock tunnels that can simultaneously generate the
aa. requiredhighenthalpyandhighpressure[39].Theflowfieldinsidea B. ScramjetEngineModelandItsScaling
c.ai scramjetcombustorisverycomplexduetoshock-shockandshock Scramjetairintakeconsistsoftwocompressionrampswith10.5°
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8 | ground-based simulation facilities encounter many challenges to expansionrampnozzle(SERN).Theconfigurationofthescramjet
201 predict its performance [2]. Notwithstanding the above limitations, engineisshowninFig.2.
21, ground test facilities such as shock tunnel play a major role to Theprimaryobjectiveofthetestistodemonstratetheoccurrence
n July cthhearuanccteerritzaeintthieesflionwvofilevleddininsidtheethperesdcircatmiojnetocfosmcrbaumstjoertsf.lCowonfseiadteurriensg, ogfroauuntodi.gAnistiothneanrudnstuimpeersionnitchecosmhobcukstitounnnineslidise∼th3esmcrsa,mthjeetmonodtheel
N o manycountrieshaveresortedtosmall-scaleexperimentalfacilitiesto scalingshouldbeinsuchawaytoestablishthesteadyflow,mixing,
HE demonstratescramjettechnologyforvalidatingthegroundprediction ignition,andcombustionwithinthistimeperiod.Thetimerequiredto
NC tools. Some of the programs to demonstrate scramjet technology establishanattachedboundarylayeroverthemodel[39,51]isgiven
E
U include Kholod of Russia; SCRAM, X43, and X51 of USA; and inEq.(1).
M
TU Hyshot and Scram Space experiments by Australia [40]. However, 3.3L
R very limited literature is available on supersonic combustion in a t(cid:4) (1)
E U
D typicalscramjetengineathigh-enthalpyflowsthroughshocktunnel ∞
EK testing[41–49].
TH IndianSpaceResearchOrganization(ISRO)isembarkeduponthe Similarly, the time required for ignition and hydrogen (H2)
LIO development of scramjet technology for low-cost access to space. reaction[52]isgiveninEq.(2):
ed by BIB Tahtyotadwcraohrgeddentahtiissth,ientjwreecoatresdpcoriarntmtioojnethtoeefncagotimwnebosu-ss(ttaeognregtihsnoreouunAgdhiantngwdrooecsnktrgeuitnt.eiGnajBes)cetooaurress ti(cid:4)8×10−P9e9600∕T (2)
d
wnloa s0p6a:0n0nihnrgIntdhieanhSetiagnhdtaordfTthimeec,othmebsuosutnodr.inOgnrocAkuegtubsotos2t8er,s2ta0g1e6w, aast where P and T are the local pressure and temperature, while the
Do ignitedandthesupersoniccombustionwasdemonstrated. mixturetemperature(Tm)ofairandhydrogenisrelatedinEq.(3):
Inthiscontext,thepresentinvestigationisaimedtodemonstrate
0.327ϕ
tihnetegoractceudrraeinrcientaokfe–siusopleartsoorn–iccomcobmusbtours–tinoonzzilnecsohnofcigkurtautinonne.lTohne Tm(cid:4)Ta−1(cid:6)0.327ϕ(cid:1)Ta−Tf(cid:3) (3)
Fig.1 Schematicofcombustion-drivenshocktunnel.
ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL. 3
Fig.2 Detailsofthescramjetengine.
in Table 1. The transducers are recess mounted in a cavity of
ϕ2 mm×2mm (depth) to protect the transducer surface from
excessive heat as well as to ensure that the transducers are not
1
76 protrudingintotheflow.Heatfluxdistributionthroughtemperature
6
5 measurements inside the combustor is done by five numbers of
0
1.J in-housedevelopedE-typeco-axialthermocoupleswitharesponse
14/ timeof2–3 μs[54].Thehigh-speeddataacquisitionsystemconsists
5
0.2 of National Instruments–based cards for acquiring and storing the
1
OI: pressureandtemperaturesignals.Atotalof48high-speedchannels
D are available for acquiring the test data. Out of 48 channels, 16
org | channelsareusedformeasuring variousparameters (shockspeed,
a. P ,P ,P ,P ,P ,etc.)relatedtoshocktunnelandremaining32
c.aia ch1ann2elsa4red5edic02atedformodel-associated parameters.Tomatch
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8 | signal conditioner to filter out high-frequency noise. The data are
1
0 Fig.3 Modelinthetestsection. digitizedusinga14-bitADCcardstoredinthelocalcontroller.
2
1,
2
y
on Jul Thereactiontime[53]isgiveninEq.(4): D.ApSaimrtuflraotimonMPaarcahmneutemrsber,Reynoldsnumber,andgeometry,the
N
E −1.12T∕1000 importantparameterstobesimulatedforsupersoniccombustionin
NCH tr (cid:4)1.05×10−4e P1.7 (4) impulsefacilitiesarethetotalenthalpy,theDamkohlernumbers,and
E thewalltemperatureratio[49].Damkohlerfirstandsecondnumber
U
M Thetotaltimefor95%energyreleaseinaconstantpressureH -air simulationsensurethatthetimescalesofreactionandheataddedare
TU reactionisgivenbythesumofEqs.(2)and(4).Foranestim2ated same between ground facilities and flight. In impulse facilities,
ER combustion chamber inlet temperature of 1100 K and a the run time is of the order of few milliseconds and scaled-down
K D precombustionpressureof1bar,thetimerequiredforignitionand modelsareused;itisnecessarytousepressure-length(P-L)scaling
HE energyreleaseis∼400μs.Byassumingthefreestreamvelocityof parameter to establish Damkohler first number. This scaling
OT 2000m∕s for a model of 800 mm length, the time to establish a parameter is valid for scaled-down models [39,52] where binary
BLI developed flow with attached boundary layer along the model is reactions are involved throughout the flowfieldandcombustionis
BI 1.3ms[fromEq.(1)].Thusthetotaltimerequiredtoestablishthe mixingdominated[49].Theshocktunnelexperimentsarecarriedout
d by steadyflowandcombustionis1.7ms.Consideringtheuncertainties at atotal enthalpy of 2.6 MJ∕kg (to produce intended run time in
de in the estimation of runtime, a conservative model scale of 1:3 tunnel).ThesimulationparametersarepresentedinTable2.
a
nlo (length∼800mm)ischosenandrealized.Themodelisconstructed
w
o in a modular fashion and is made of stainless steel. The model E. FreestreamConditionsforScramjetExperiments
D
consists of two side fences, a top platewith cowl, flow duct, fuel Thetestsarecarriedoutintailoredmodeatastagnationenthalpyof
injectionstruts,andabottomplate.Assemblyismadebyfasteningall 2.6 MJ∕kgwithvaryingprimarydiaphragmsburstpressures(150,
the parts using M8, 12.9-grade fasteners, and in the assembled 200, and 250 bar) to achieve different tunnel stagnation pressures
condition the dimensions are checked and assembly integrity is (110–190 bar). The measured tunnel stagnation conditions and
ensured.AphotographoftherealizedmodelisshowninFig.3.
the calculated freestream conditions are presented in Table 3. The
stagnant flow expands through a conical nozzle of semidivergent
C. SensorLocationsandInstrumentation angleof10°withathroatdiameterof60mmandanexitdiameterof
Pressuresalongthecenterline(Fig.4)ofthemodelat10different 650mm.BecausethetestsectionMachnumberisdifferentfromthat
axiallocationsaremeasuredusingPCB-makepiezoelectricpressure oftheflight,themodelisfixedatanangleof3.5°tomimicflight
transducers(modelno:113B22).Thesensorlocationsarepresented condition.Thehydrogenfuelisinjectedatchoked(M(cid:4)1)condition
Fig.4 Detailsofthesensorlocations.
4 ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL.
withdifferentstagnationpressures(P0ij)varying7to42bartogetthe
required equivalence ratio (ER), while the stagnation temperature
(T0ij)ismaintainedatambient(∼300K)condition.
F. HydrogenFuelInjectionforSupersonicCombustion
FuelinjectionstrutsAandBareusedtosupplygaseousH atroom
2
temperature(∼300K).EachindividualstrutiscalibratedwithH gas
2
for different CdA values. The experimental setup consists of a
pressuresource,apressure-regulatingvalve,amassflowmeter,anda
GP50-make steady pressure transducer to measure the injection
pressure.A2-waypilot-operated,normallyclosed,explosion-proof
solenoidvalvewithamaximumoperatingpressureof350baralong
with8mmorificediameterisusedtoinjectthegaseousH .Toavoid
2
corruptionofthesignals,thesolenoidvalveiskeptoutsidethetest
section.ThegaseousH issuppliedfromabankoffivecommercial-
2
grade hydrogen cylinders to maintain constancy of pressure and
temperatureduringamaximumblowdowntimeof300ms.Because
61 of very short runtime, the gas cylinders are charged to the
7
6 predetermined injection pressure accounting for losses and are
5
1.J0 operatedinablowdownmode.Trialexperimentsarecarriedoutto Fig.5 Responsetimeforvariousinjectionpressures.
4/ study the pressure losses in the fuel injection line and response/
1
5
0.2 settlingtimeforvariousinjectionpressures(Fig.5).Att(cid:4)20ms,
1
OI: commandisgiventoopenthesolenoidvalve.Thetrialtestindicates
D Table1 Pressureandthermocouplelocationsonthemodel thatnearly40–50mstimeisrequiredforthepressuretoreachsteady
org | Sensor valueandthepressurelossisdifferentforstrutAandstrutB(∼4bar
aa. locations Sensorlocations max). Based on the measured injection pressure and the mass
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8 | S3 19.1 0 TC3 27.3 −1.75H massflowrateandERcomputation.
1
20 S4 20.4 0 TC4 27.3 1.75H
21, S5 23.0 0 TC5 29.5 −1.75H G. ExperimentalProcedure
N on July SSS678 222566...516 000 TTCC67 3301..83 −11.7.755HH valIvneac5t0uamlesxbpeefroimreenthtes,itghneictoiomnmoafncdoimsgbiuvsetniotnoodprievnerthaenHd2thsoeleDnAoiQd
HE S9 27.7 0 (Fig.6)forsynchronizingthefreestreamandtheH2injection.Because
C S10 29.3 0 the test sectionvolume is very large (∼25m3) and is evacuated to
N
E S11 31.3 0 ∼1 Palevelbeforethetest,H injectionbeforethetestwiththemass
U 2
M S12 33.5 0 flowrateof30 g∕shasnegligibleinfluenceonbackpressureriseas
U
T wellasthetestresults.However,theratiooffuelinjectionpressure
DER S,pressuresensor;TC,thermocouple. (P0ij)andfreestreampressure(P∞)playsanimportantroleinmixing.
K
E
H H. TailoringtheShockTunnel
LIOT Table2 Simulationparameters Inshocktunnels,thedurationofsteadytesttimedependsonthe
BIB Parameter Model arrivalofexpansionwaves/shockwaveduetotheinteractionofthe
by Machnumber(M) 6.8 reflectedshockwiththecontactsurfaceorthearrivalofthereflected
oaded FToretaelstprereasmsusrteat(iPc0p)ressure(P∞) 121.20––41.950kbPaar erexfpleacntseidonwfaavnessf,rothmetahceoudsritvicerimtoptehdeanrecfele(cρtead) zaocnroes.sTotheavcooidnttahcet
wnl Totalenthalpy(H0) ∼2.6MJ∕kg surfaceneedstobematched.Inthisprocess,aMachwavewillbe
Do Freestreamstatictemperature(T∞) 250K generatedowingtotheinteractionofreflectedshockwiththecontact
Angleofattack −3.5°
surface,whichensuresuniformflowconditionsinthereflectedzone.
Fuel Hydrogen FurthertosimulatetheP-Lscaling,astagnationpressureof>200bar
ER 0,0.24,0.34,0.42,0.63,0.75,1.16
isrequired.Thisnecessitatestheprimarydiaphragmburstpressureto
Table3 Freestreamconditionsforscramjettests
RunNo. P4,bar P1,mbar US,m∕s P5,bar h5,MJ∕kg P02,bar Pc,bar ER P∞,kPa T∞,K U∞,m∕s ρ∞,kg∕m3
542 277 1218 1530 166 2.7 2.172 1.6 0.42 3.53 261.5 2207 4.7E−02
543a 250 1190 1668 155 2.92 2.15 1.5 N ∕H 3.66 293.8 2292 4.3e−02
2 2
544 250 1210 1562 150 2.68 1.78 1.5 0.24 2.76 249.2 2206 3.7e−02
545 200 900 1620 111 2.79 1.26 1 0.32 1.91 253.8 2250 2.6e−02
546b 55 510 1252 37 1.84 0.53 0.28 0.00 0.85 174.5 1822 1.7e−2
550c 250 1200 1644 177 2.98 2.22 1.4 0.53 3.59 288 2320 4.4e−02
551 300 1600 1520 190 2.58 2.45 1.5 0.63 3.94 247.6 2157 5.6e−02
552 220 1250 1498 140 2.49 1.86 1.25 0.75 3.10 240.7 2122 4.4e−02
556 250 1575 1421 170 2.34 2.21 1.5 1.16 3.55 223.4 2055 5.5e−02
aNoreaction.
bNoinjection.
cNocombustion.
ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL. 5
1
6
7
6
5
1.J0 Fig.6 OperationsequenceofH2injectionandthefreestream. Fig.8 FFTofthepressuresignal.
4/
1
5
2
0.
OI: 1 The first gas mixture (case A in Table 4) is tested with argon
D dilutioninthestoichiometricmixtureofhydrogenandoxygenfor
g | twodiaphragmpressures(150and200bar).Argonisaddedinthe
aa.or mixturetoreducepostcombustionspeedofsound(a4),whereas10%
ai moreoxygenisaddedtoensurecompletecombustionofhydrogento
c.
ar avoid interface combustion at the contact surface [55]. Though
8 | http:// c(∼as3emAs()1,i5t0prboadru)cisesfolouwndertvoablueesoufitPab5l(eFiing.t9e)rmduseotfoath4eaantdternuunattiimone
01 ofshockspeedduringthetestowingtohighermolecularweightof
2
1, the driver gas. For higher diaphragm pressures (200 bar), the
2
y attenuationofshockspeedfurtherincreasesandtheruntimeisnot
ul
n J sufficient.ThisisvalidforthecasesBandC.Hence,N2gasdilution
o
N (caseDinTable4)isusedtogettheruntimeof3ms.However,at
HE higherloadingpressures,thecombustiontakeslongtimeandinmany
C
N teststhecombustionisnotrepeatable.
E
U Hence,anewmixture(casesEandFinTable4)ofHeandAris
M
U tested for combustion at higher loading pressures to get a4 of
R T ∼1000m∕s.Thenewmixture(caseE)takesmorethan500msfora
DE loadingpressureof∼30bar,whereasforcaseHitis∼150msfor
K ∼40barloadingpressure.Sincetheriseintimeislargeduetoheat
E Fig.7 Pressurehistoryinsidethecombustiondrivertubeforconstant
H loss(tothewallsofthecombustiondriver),intendedpressurejump
T volume.
LIO could not beachieved.The reason could behigher dilution of the
B gases. Hence, the ratio of diluents is reduced to 9 parts (case G,
BI
y Table 4) with He and Ar in the volumetric ratio of 5 and 4,
d b be in excess of 250 bar. Thus, apart from generating adequate respectively. As a result, higher a (∼1120m∕s) in the driver is
ade runtime,thegoalofthetailoringistogetapostcombustionpressure achievedbutthemixtureiscombusti4ngforfillingpressureupto∼45
Downlo aPr5o.unTdai3lo0r0inbgaroinfththeecosmhobcukstiotunndnreilveirssoacahsiteovperdodbuycedthileutrienqguirthede bTahroaungdhpthroedguocaelsoaftpaoilsotrcionmgbisutsotiognetparnesesnutrhealopfy∼o3f0∼01b.7arM(FJi∕gk.g1f0o)r.
stoichiometricmixtureofoxygenandhydrogenwithdiluentssuchas P of∼200bars,thesamecouldnotbeachievedwiththecasesA–F
helium(He),argon(Ar),andnitrogen(N )indifferentvolumetric 5
2 and hence the mixture case G is selected, which can produce a
proportions.Thisisdoneinthepresentstudiesinwhichthedriver
runtime>3 msandaP of∼200bars.BecausethemixturecaseG
sectionisfilledwithgasmixturealongwiththediluentsandignited 5
simultaneously.Tomeasurethepostcombustionspeedofsound(a ), hasahighpostcombustionspeedofsound(a4),thetunnelcouldbe
4 tailoredonlyatahighenthalpyof∼2.6 MJ∕kg.AtypicalP traces
the primary diaphragm is not allowed to rupture so that the 5
for mixture case I depicting the run time >3 ms for various
combustionoccursatconstantvolume.Asaresult,asuddenpressure
diaphragmpressuresareshowninFig.11.
riseoccurs,whichleadstotheformationofastandingpressurewave
inthedriversection,whichismeasuredbyaPCBpressuresensor.
Thepressurehistoryofatypicalgasmixtureratioof1.1:2:9(oxygen:
Table4 Gasmixtureratios
hydrogen:argon [O2:H2:Ar]) presented in Fig. 7 shows cyclic (volumetric)fortunneltailoring
oscillations (frequencyof oscillation is 114Hz) after reachingthe
maximumvalue.Itisassumedthatthepressurewaveisstationary Case O2 H2 He Ar N2 a4,m∕s
withitsfundamentaltone.ThefastFouriertransform(FFT)ofthe A 1.1 2 9 880
pressure signal presented in Fig. 8 shows that the fundamental B 1.1 2 10 840
mode (114 Hz) is dominant. The two closed ends of the driver C 1.1 2 7 888
sectionbecomethenodesforthestandingwave,andhalfofthe D 1.1 2 2 5 1000
E 1.1 2 7 6 1000
wavelengthofthewaveisequaltothelengthofthetube.Inthis
F 1.1 2 6 5 1080
waya iscalculatedforallthegasmixturesandarepresentedin
4 G 1.1 2 5 4 1120
Table4.
6 ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL.
1
6
67 Fig.9 Pressuretracesinthedrivertubeandreflectedzone(caseAofTable4).
5
0
1.J
4/
251 with air as primary flow at different dynamic pressures with H2
0. injection (case J, Run No. 542) for various ER. To ascertain the
1
OI: occurrenceofsupersoniccombustion,pressuremeasurementalong
D thecenterlineofthemodeliscomparedforthetestcasesH,I,andJin
org | Table5.
aa. The nondimensional pressure distribution for cases H, I, and J
c.ai matchestillthefuelinjectionstrutforallthethreecases.Ontheother
p://ar hand, a small pressure rise due to secondary gas injection is seen
htt behindthestrutforcaseI,andapproximatelythreetimespressurerise
8 | duetocombustionforcaseJisobserved.Theabsenceofupstream
1
20 interactionandlargepressureriseafterthestrutforcaseJconfirms
21, theoccurrenceofsupersoniccombustion.Heatfluxmeasurementsin
uly thecombustorarealsocarriedouttocomplementthepressuredata
n J (Fig.12).Theheatflux(Fig.13)ishighestatalllocationsforcaseJas
o
N compared with cases H and I, thus corroborating the pressure
E
H measurements and confirming the occurrence of supersonic
C
N combustion. The present measurements are in line with the heat
E
MU fluxmeasurementreportedintheliterature[40,56],wherethedratio
U ofheatfluxforfuel-on(reacting)andfuel-offconditionisobservedto
R T Fig. 10 Pressure trace in the driver tube for helium-argon mixture be∼2times.
E
D (caseG,Table4).
K
E
H A. IgnitionandMixingDelay
T
O Atypicalpressuretraceatx∕H(cid:4)26.1justbehindthestrutis
LI
B shown in Fig. 14 for both with and without combustion. It can
y BI be observed that nearly 0.6 ms is required for the flow to
d b stabilize and further ∼0.4 ms is taken for the combustion to
e
ad occur; that is, mixing plus ignition delay time combined is
o
nl ∼1.1 ms. However, on the other hand, additionally 0.6 ms is
w
Do needed to raise pressure to the maximum value. Here it can be
observed that the total rise time for pressure due to combustion
is ∼1.7ms, which is in line with the empirical value as
discussed earlier.
B. EffectofEquivalenceRatio(ER)
TheERisvariedfrom0.24to1.16bychangingthefuelinjection
pressure(P0ij)andfreestreamconditions.Nondimensionalpressure
(Cp) distribution along the centerline of the engine is plotted and
comparedfordifferentERsinFig.15.Thelocationoffirstpressure
Fig.11 TypicalP traceforthescramjetexperiments.
5 Table5 Testconditionstoconfirmtheoccurrenceofsupersonic
combustion
III. ResultsandDiscussion RunNo. Testgas P5,bar Hydrogen,g∕s Enthalpy,MJ∕kg Remark
546 Air 37 Noinjection 1.80 CaseH
Shocktunneltestsarecarriedoutforthethreeconditions,namely,
543 N 155 9.73 2.92 CaseI
testswithprimaryairalone(CaseH,RunNo.546),testswithN as 2
2 542 Air 166 8.72 2.70 CaseJ
theprimaryflowwithH injection(caseI,RunNo.543),andtests
2
ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL. 7
sensorafterthefuelinjectionpoint,thatis,endofstrut,isx∕H(cid:4)
25.5 anddesignated assensor S6as shownin Fig.5 andTable 1.
WhenERisincreased,asanticipated,riseinpressure(ΔP)dueto
combustionincreasesandamaximumCpof3.2isobserved.ForER
of0.24,noticeableriseinpressurecouldbeobservedonlyattheS8
pressuresensorlocatedafterthestrutend,whereasforERof0.34the
pressurerisecouldbeobservedfromthesensorS7onward,whereas
forERof0.41andabove,theignitionstartsoccurringimmediately
fromthesensorS6afterthestrut.Thiscouldmeanthattheignition
delay and mixing length are more for low ER. An approximate
expressionforcombustionpressureriseisgivenbyEq.(5)[3].
PC (cid:4)1(cid:6)(cid:1)γ−1(cid:3)ΔQ (5)
P a2
1
With ΔQ(cid:4)3.5MJ∕kg, γ(cid:4)1.3, and a precombustion temper-
atureof1100K,Pc∕P1is3.55andthesameisalsoobservedfromthe
1 presentexperiments.ResultsfurtherindicatethatuptoanER1.16,no
6
67 upstream interaction is present and the combustion occurs at
1.J05 Fig.12 Pressuredistributioninsidetheengine. supersonic mode. The normalized heat flux measurements also
4/ corroborated the occurrence of combustion. As expected with the
1
25 increaseinER,theheatfluxalsoincreases(Fig.15).
0.
1
DOI: C. EffectofCombustorInletStaticPressure(Pc)
g | It is observed that when the static pressure in the combustion
a.or chamberislessthan1bar,pressureriseisnotobservedclosetothe
a
ai strut injection location irrespective of the ER. Rather, it occurs
arc. beyondX∕H of27.7(sensorS9)asshowninFig.16.Thisisalso
http:// evidentfromheatfluxmeasurementwheretheriseinheatfluxisseen
8 | at this point. The obtained results are in line with the literature
01 [40,57].Inthis,whencombustionchamberinletpressureis1.3bar,
2
1, immediate rise in the pressure is seenjust downstream of the fuel
n July 2 0in.5je7ctbioarnthloecraitsieonindpureestsourceoimsboubssteiorvne.dOant∼th1e00othmemrhdaonwd,nsfotrreaPmc ooff
N o thefuelinjectionlocationduetocombustion.
HE Theempiricalformulaformixinglengthforstrutsinsupersonic
C
N flowisgiveninEqs.(6)and(7)[58].
E
U
M (cid:1) (cid:3)
R TU Mc(cid:4)(cid:1)(cid:1)Uaf(cid:6)−Uaa(cid:3)(cid:3)Ldm (cid:4)f(cid:1)KM(cid:7) (cid:3) ρρfuuf 0.5 (6)
E f a f c c c
D
K
E
H
OT f(cid:1)Mc(cid:3)(cid:4)0.25(cid:6)0.75(cid:1)e−3M2c(cid:3)ηm(cid:4)a(cid:1)1−e−(cid:1)kx(cid:2)(cid:3)df(cid:3) (7)
LI Fig.13 Heatfluxdistributioninsidetheengine.
B
y BI wherea(cid:4)1.06492,k(cid:4)3.69639,K(cid:7)(cid:4)390,andd(cid:4)0.80586are
ed b constants, and ηm, Mc, and df are the mixing efficiency, the
ad convectiveMachnumber,andthehydraulicdiameter,respectively.
o
nl From the above model, it can be observed that reducing the
w
Do momentumoftheairleadstolargemixinglength,whichinturnleads
to increase the pressure due to combustion as observed in the
experiments. Further, it is reported that at lower combustor static
pressures,H andO reactionproducesOH−andH(cid:6)inthefirststep
2 2
and recombination to produce H O happens slowly and further
2
downstream of the strut, whereas at higher combustor inlet static
pressures,therecombinationhappensquicklyandH Oconversion
2
happensimmediatelydownstreamofthestrut[53],whichmayalso
be a cause for this behavior. Table 6 summarizes the combustion
chamberinletpressure.
D. EffectofRuntime
In the present series of tests the enthalpy is varied from 1.7 to
2.6 MJ∕kg.Whenthetestsarecarriedatlowenthalpy(1.7MJ∕kg),
supersoniccombustionisnotachieved.Thisisprobablyduetolower
runtime in the facility. Hence, to ensure proper runtime, tests are
carried out at 2.6 MJ∕kg and the results show the supersonic
combustion.Thereforeitisessentialthatwhencarryingouttestsat
lower enthalpy like 1.7MJ∕kg, a driver gas that can produce a
Fig.14 Ignitionandmixingdelaytime. minimumruntimeof4–5msispreferable.
8 ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL.
1
76 Fig.15 CenterlinepressuredistributionandnormalizedheatfluxvariationforvariousERs.
6
5
0
1.J
4/
1
5
2
0.
1
OI:
D
g |
or
a.
a
ai
c.
ar
p://
htt
8 |
1
0
2
1,
2
y
ul
n J
o
N
E
H
C
N
E
U
M
U Fig.16 EffectofcombustionchamberinletpressureonCPandheatflux.
T
R
E
D
K
E
H E. MeasurementUncertainty
T
O
LI 1. ErrorintheEstimationofER
BIB BasedontheCdAvalues,errorintheestimationofERis(cid:5)2%.
y TheerrorinthepressurevaluesmeasuredbyPCBsensoris(cid:5)1%,
b
ed whiletheerrorintheestimationofpercentageofthecapturedmass
oad flowratebytheengineis(cid:5)5%.Thereforetheoverallerrorinthe
wnl estimationoftheERiscalculatedtobe(cid:5)5.5%(2σ).
o
D
2. ErrorinPressureandHeatFluxMeasurement
Todemonstratetherepeatabilityofthedata,twotestsarecarried
outforsimilarERandpresentedinFig.17.Fromthefigure,itcanbe
observedthattherepeatabilityisverygoodandthedatamatchwithin
1%.Astherepeatabilityaloneisnotameasureofuncertainty,errors
associated with P1, T1, P2, Us, P, and P02 measurements are
calculated using the method of propagation of errors. Based on
methodology [56], typical uncertainty in Cp measurement is
estimatedtobe(cid:5)12%,whereasforheatfluxitis(cid:5)15%.
Table6 Effectofcombustionchamberinletpressure Fig.17 Repeatabilityoftestdata.
Run P5/Pc, Enthalpy,
No. bar ER MJ∕kg Remark IV. Conclusions
552 140/ 0.75 2.49 Combustion Experiments are carried out in the shock tunnel to demonstrate
1.25
autoignition and supersonic combustion in a scramjet engine.
553 120/ 0.79 2.43 Combustionnotcapturedby
Extensivestudiesarecarriedouttotailortheshocktunneltocaterfor
0.95 pressuremeasurements
theflightenthalpy.Inthis,bydilutingthestoichiometricmixtureof
ArticleinAdvance / SRINIVASANETAL. 9
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