Table Of ContentHANDBOOK OF STRATA-BOUND A ND
STRATIFORM ORE DEPOSITS
Edited by
K.H. WOLF
I
PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL STUDIES
1. Classifications and Historical Studies
2. Geochemical Studies
3. Supergene and Surficial Ore Deposits; Textures and Fabrics
4. Tectonics and Metamorphism
II
REGIONAL STUDIES AND SPECIFIC DEPOSITS
5. Regional Studies
6. Cu, Zn, Pb, and Ag Deposits
7. Au, U, Fe, Mn, Hg, Sb, W, and Ρ Deposits
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1976
HANDBOOK OF STRATA-BOUND A ND
STRATIFORM ORE DEPOSITS
I. PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL STUDIES
Edited by
K.H. WOLF
Volume 3
SUPERGENE A ND
SURFICIAL ORE DEPOSITS;
TEXTURES A ND FABRICS
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1976
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
335 Jan van Galenstraat
P.O. Box 211, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Distributors for the United States and Canada:
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ISBN: 0-444-41403-7
Copyright © 1976 by Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
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Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Jan van Galenstraat 335, Amsterdam
Printed in The Netherlands
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME
Β. BOULANGE
Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Outre Mer (ORSTOM), Boudy, France
G. GRAND IN
Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Outre Mer (ORSTOM), Boudy, France
J.R. HAILS
Department of Environmental Studies, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, S.A., Australia
F. LELONG
Laboratoire de Geologie Appliquee et Institut de Recherches sur les Ressources et Materiaux
Mineraux, Universite dOrleans, Orleans (CEDEX), France
W. SCHOTT
Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover, German Federal Republic
O.SCHULZ
Abteilung Geochemie und Lagerstattenlehre, Institut fur Mineralogie und Petrographie
der Universitat Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
M. SCHWARZBACH
Geologisches Institut der Universitat Koln, Koln, German Federal Republic
Y. TARDY
Centre de Sedimentologie et de Geochimie de Surface (C.N.R.S.), Strasbourg (CEDEX),
France
J.J. TRESCASES
Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Outre Mer (ORSTOM), Boudy, France
J. VEIZER
Department of Geology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont., Canada
VI LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME
Η. WOPFNER
Geologisches Institut der Universitat Koln, Koln, German Federal Republic
R.A. ZIMMERMAN
Mineralogisch-Petrographisches Institut der Universitat Heidelberg, Heidelberg, German
Federal Republic
P. ZUFFARDI
Cattedra di Giacimenti Minerari, Universita de Milano, Milano, Italy
Chapter 1
EVOLUTION OF ORES OF SEDIMENTARY AFFILIATION THROUGH GEOLOGIC
HISTORY; RELATIONS TO THE GENERAL TENDENCIES IN EVOLUTION OF THE
CRUST, HYDROSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE AND BIOSPHERE
JAN VEIZER
INTRODUCTION
Economic geology, like any other field of the geosciences, is at present in a turbulent
state of development. One obvious trend is evident in attempts to relate economic de
posits, particularly of the endogenic type, to the "new global tectonics" with all its
consequences. The second feature, currently very strongly emphasized, is the treatment
of economic deposits not as a special entity, but as an integral part of their geological
environment. Economic geology is becoming more and more a geology of rocks, with ores
being only one example of them (Stanton, 1972, p. 34). This is a very important step, in
particular for "ores of sedimentary affiliation", which may have a direct relationship to
the surrounding "country rocks". Their actual genesis is treated in detail in various parts
of this multi-volume publication and is not a subject of the present review. On the other
hand, if such ores are intimately related to their sedimentary environment, and this en
vironment evolved during geologic history, the apparent evolution should be reflected
also by the "ores of sedimentary affiliation".
An attempt to formulate pertinent questions in this direction was hampered by the
overwhelming influence of the magmatic theory of the origin of ores, and even more by
the lack of knowledge of the Precambrian and its stratigraphy. These two defects have
been rectified to a considerable degree during the last 10-15 years and as a result, first
attempts at a comprehensive approach to the problem were formulated. Of particular
importance were the publications of Strakhov (1964, 1969), Ronov (1964), Ronov and
Migdisov (1971), Garrels and Mackenzie (1971) and Stanton (1972). These authors set
the stage for the treatment of ore genesis and sedimentary rocks as a complementary
system.
A review of such a broad subject is extremely difficult and this chapter is no more
than an attempt to indicate the general problem and to expose possible interrelations and
mutual consistency of the evolution of the outer spheres of the earth. The author is
deeply convinced that concentrated research into the questions tackled in the present
review would be extremely rewarding and beneficial and may change to a considerable
degree the picture presented below.
2 THE EVOLUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ORES IN GEOLOGIC HISTORY
ORES OF SEDIMENTARY AFFILIATION AND THEIR TRENDS IN GEOLOGIC HISTORY
limiting the ores of sedimentary affiliation to those described below, it is possible to
discuss their major types and distribution during geologic history. The available data vary
in detail and reliability and therefore discussion of the problem is rather uneven. Never
theless, this description may serve as a basis for outlining general features and the direc
tion of future research and interpretation.
Residual deposits and weathering crusts1
Depending on the climate and bedrock composition, weathering may lead to forma
tion of laterites of either iron- or alumina-rich type. These, in some cases, may serve as
tOO 1000 my.
Fig. 1. Histogram of the identified world resources of bauxites and the proportion of various fades
during geologic history. (Based on the data of Valeton, 1972, and compilation of resources by Pater-
son, 1967.)
a = gibbsite bauxites on igneous and metamorphic rocks; b = gibbsite bauxites on clastic rocks; c =
gibbsite bauxites on karst; d = boehmite bauxites on karst; e = diaspore bauxites on karst; / =
corundum schists.
The dotted line representes the slope for decrease in total world sedimentary mass with increasing age
(cf. Fig. 7).
1 Editor's note: see also in this Volume, Chapter 3 by Lelong et al.
TRENDS IN GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF SEDIMENTARY ORES 3
economic accumulations of iron, manganese and alumina (bauxites). Ferruginous laterites
also contain a high proportion of known nickel resources (Cornwall in Brobst and Pratt,
1973). Their potential for extraction of other metals as byproducts is not yet fully
realized (cf., Krauskopf, 1955), but the ferruginous laterites could be a potential source
of Co, Ni, As, Be, Cr, Mo, Cu and possibly also Sc, Se, V, and the alumina-rich laterites of
Be, Ga, Ti and possibly also Mo, Zn, Nb, Zr and others.
The origin and classification of bauxites was discussed recently by Valeton (1972).
From Fig. 1 it is evident that the total reserves as well as the facies of deposits were
highly variable during geologic history. The mineralogical composition changes in the
order gibbsite boehmite diaspore corundum with increasing age. This trend very
likely represents diagenetic and/or metamorphic dehydratation (cf., Valeton, 1972
p. 179). The rapid decrease in total reserves of bauxites with increasing age, as well as the
higher proportion of karst-type deposits in Mesozoic and Paleozoic sequences, will be
discussed later in the text.
woo
106t
T06y ο
ν Ο2 Μ
Ο
LU (Τ
700 J ο
Ο ο ο
IM ΓΜ
Ο Ο</> oIM 0. α.
ID Ο
< UJ
I
Q_
ο
70 J <\
w WO 7000 my
WO WOO m.y
Fig. 2. Histogram of the identified world resources of sedimentary iron ores and the proportion of
various facies during geologic history. (Based on the United Nations Survey of World Iron Ore Re
sources, 1970.)
a = laterites, gossans, placers, etc.; b = Minette type; c = Clinton type;d = Superior type; e = Algoma
type.
The dotted line as in Fig. 1.
4 THE EVOLUTION OF SEDIMENTARY ORES IN GEOLOGIC HISTORY
to\
1
Fig. 3. Histogram of the identified world resources of sedimentary manganese ores and the proportion
of various facies during geologic history. (Based on the summary of Varentsov, 1964.)
a = residual deposits; b = orthoquartzite-glauconite-clay association; c = carbonate association; d =
orthoquartzite-siliceous shale-manganese carbonate association; e = volcano-sedimentary type; / =
"jaspilitic" type.
The dotted line as in Fig. 1.
The rapid decrease in iron- (and manganese)-rich laterites in sequences older than
Cenozoic is evident from Figs. 2 and 3. This decrease is more evident for iron than
manganese. However, this is due mainly to the enormous tonnage of the Mn deposits of
the orthoquartzite—glauconite—clay association (cf., Fig. 3). In fact the absolute eco
nomic manganese reserves of lateritic type in Cenozoic formations are almost equal to the
total Paleozoic reserves.
Deposits associated with fluviatile to deltaic clastic sediments
(1) According to United States Mineral Resources (Brobst and Pratt, 1973), placer and
palaeoplacer deposits, whether of elluvial, alluvial or beach type, are at present the
world's major source of Nb, Ta, Sn, W, Ti, Th, Zr and Hf. They are, or were, the source of
TRENDS IN GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF SEDIMENTARY ORES 5
TABLE I
Summary of characteristic features of the ores of fluviatile-deltaic association (in part a modification
of Roscoe's, 1969, table XI)
Placers and Conglomerate—gold— Sandstone -uranium - vanadium -
3
palaeoplacers1 uranium-pyrite type2 copper type
Host rocks mostly oligomictic oligomictic conglome sandstones, arkoses, siltstones,
sandstones and sands, rates; greenish argilla mud stones of variegated, pre
less conglomerates ceous sandstones, dominantly red, colours (red beds),
and pebbles arkoses, shales conglomerates, lignites and
organic debris, carbonates
Sedimentary continental-marine: continental: continental: mostly fluviatile
environment elluvial, alluvial, fluviatile-deltaic
beach placers
Tectonic setting platform cover platform cover and rigid sialic
blocs
Age mostly Quaternary mostly Early Late Paleozoic to Quaternary
and Tertiary Proterozoic
Shape of deposits lenses and blankets stratiform, concordant peneconcordant tabular bodies,
(concordant with in detail with sedimen elongate irregular bodies;
sedimentary features) tary features discordant C-shaped bodies
(rolls)
Controls of primary features favourable for concentra facies variation, large-scale sedi
localization tion of detrital heavy minerals; mentary features and tectonic
palaeo topography structures affecting permeability
(often dissemination and distribution of organic
in arkosic matrix) material
Minerals "heavy minerals": uraninite, uranotho- uraninite, coffinite, secondary U
monazite, chromite, rite, brannerite, minerals; roscoelite, montroseite,
zircon, columbite, thucholite, pyrite, V-clay; chalcocite, covellite,
tantalite, native Au, gold, "heavy chalcopyrite, bornite, malachite,
Pt, cassiterite, minerals" azurite; pyrite, marcasite, galena,
wolframite, scheelite, sphalerite
magnetite, hematite
Ore mineral discrete grains small discrete sub- very fine-grained impregnations
textures rounded to rounded and replacements
grains
Metals recovered Nb,Ta, Sn, W, Ti,Th, Au, U, Th, Y, REE, U, V, Cu, Mo, Ag (Se, As, Ni, Co)
or concen Zr, Hf, Au, Pt-group, Pt-group (Pb, Ti, Zr,
trated Sc, Y, Cr, REE Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ag)
Sulphur little isotopic extreme isotopic fractionation
fractionation
Examples tin belt of SE Asia; Witwatersrand (S.A.); Colorado Plateau (U.S.A.);
Florida beach sand Blind River-Elliot Ferghana (?) (U.S.S.R.);
for Ti (U.S.A.) Lake area (Canada); Hamr (Czechosl.)
Serra de Jacobina
(Brazil); Tarkwa (?)
(Ghana); Aldan
Shield (U.S.S.R.)
l>2,3 Editor's notes: 1 see Chapter 5 by Hails; 2 Chapters 1 and 2, in Vol. 7, by Pretorius, describe the
Witwatersrand deposits; see, in Vol. 7, Chapter 3 by Rackley.
