Table Of ContentMaterials Horizons: From Nature to Nanomaterials
Harvinder Singh
Structural
Materials
Behavior, Testing and Evaluation
Materials Horizons: From Nature
to Nanomaterials
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Harvinder Singh
Structural Materials
Behavior, Testing and Evaluation
123
Harvinder Singh
Department ofCivil Engineering
Guru NanakDev Engineering College
Ludhiana,Punjab, India
ISSN 2524-5384 ISSN 2524-5392 (electronic)
Materials Horizons:From Nature toNanomaterials
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Preface
‘Materials,ofthemselves,affectuslittle;itisthewayweusethemwhichinfluences
our lives’ (Epictetus, AD 50–120); these are the natural gift to the mankind to live
their life comfortably during their stay on the planet Earth. However, the last few
decades saw a systematic growth of organized research efforts by great minds to
identify, modify and synthesize different materials. These efforts led to the dis-
coveryofwonderfulnewmaterialsandexpandedthelistcontainingonlythenatural
tonumerousman-madematerialsalongwiththeformulationofmaterialmodelsand
analysis methods to capture their response. The development of the new materials
especially in the last 5–6 decades has formed the backbone on many pathbreaking
inventions that helped the human civilization to scale new heights and live com-
fortably in comparison with the ancient time when they had only a few natural
materials at their disposal. This monograph attempts to describe different types of
materials, their classifications and insights about the fundamental mechanisms that
give them distinct characteristics. It also presents the material response that they
would exhibit under the routine loading conditions, generally found in civil engi-
neering projects. The internal stress transfer mechanisms and the resultant prop-
erties that the materials exhibit are also described.
This monograph is a modest attempt to explore the world of materials as it
applies to their applications as structural materials in the context of civil engi-
neering. It attempts to summarize the vast amount of the scientific understanding
andotherresearchinformationrelatedtothebehaviorandtheresponseofdifferent
materials,suchasthemetals,nonmetalsandcompositesatoneplace.Ihopeitwill
prove useful to the budding engineers to develop a taste to explore them into the
deeperwaters.Attheteachinglevel,thebookisintendedasthetextforthesecond
year of the undergraduate civil engineering program. It will also be helpful to the
academicians andtheresearcherswhowanttorefreshandunderstandtheresponse
of different materials and how these can be manipulated to make them better or
makethembehaveaspertheprojectneeds.Fortheconvenienceofthereaders,the
notation/symbols are given and explained at the point of their use in the text.
v
vi Preface
Before concluding the Preface, I would like to express my sincere appreciation
and thanks to all those who are working continuously across the globe to explore
differentmaterialsforthebettermentofthehumanity.Theauthoralsoacknowledges
his debt to various agencies, particularly the ACI, ASTM, BIS, CNR-DT, ICE,
RELIM and different sources available on theInternet, for their publishedmaterial
and various images/photographs, respectively, to which references are made in the
monograph for the benefit of the readers. Every effort has been made to identify
copyright holders and obtain their permission for the use of copyright material.
Notification of any additions or corrections that should be incorporated in future
reprintsoreditionsofthisbookwouldbegreatlyappreciated.Attheend,theauthor
would like to express his heartiest appreciation for all those at Guru Nanak Dev
EngineeringCollege,Ludhiana,whorenderedhelpandsupportinthisworkandMr
KandalaRamakrishna,SrTechnologist,RollingTechGroup,TATASteelandMr.
Sahil Sahil Aggarwal, Sr Technologist – Application Support Group, TATA Steel
for providing aset ofvaluable information for the last chapterof thebook.
Ludhiana, India Harvinder Singh
Contents
1 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Material Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Structural and Nonstructural Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Types of Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Material Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.1 Elastic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.2 Elasto-Plastic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.3 Plastic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.1 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.2 Thermal Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.3 Acoustical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.4 Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4.5 Magnetism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.6 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2 Material Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1 Material Microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.1 Metals and Non-metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.2 Polymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.3 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2 Material Behavior Under Different Stress Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.1 Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.2.2 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.3 Shear and Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3 Parameters Affecting the Material Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.1 Size and Shape of Specimen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.2 Type of the Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.3 Duration of Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.4 Stress Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
vii
viii Contents
2.4 Material Constitutive Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.1 Tension Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4.2 Compression Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5 Characteristics Strength of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 Characterizing Material Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Different Equipments and Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.1 Force Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.2 Strain Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.3 Displacement-Controlled Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.4 Load-Controlled Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.5 Data Acquisition System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2 Selection of Suitable Testing Equipments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3 Calibration of Equipments/Instruments/Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4 Testing Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 Material Testing and Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2 Acceptance Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3 Different Test Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3.1 Strength and Stiffness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.3.2 Toughness and Resilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.3 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.4 Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3.5 Impact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.3.6 Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3.7 Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.3.8 Time-Dependent Properties, Such as Shrinkage
and Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3.9 Durability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.4 Different Methods to Monitor the Quality of Materials . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5 Nondestructive Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.5.1 Rebound Hammer Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.5.2 Pulse Velocity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.5.3 Carbonation Depth Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References and Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5 Documenting Test Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.1 Test Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.1.1 Data Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.1.2 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Contents ix
5.1.3 Compilation and Reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.2 Method of Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.3 Writing the Test Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.4 Material Selection Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6 Code of Practice and Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1 Quality Control and Importance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2 Different Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.1 Cementitious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.2 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2.3 Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.2.4 Reinforcing Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.2.5 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.2.6 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.2.7 Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.2.8 Aluminum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.2.9 Asphaltic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.2.10 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
References and Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7 Design of Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.2 Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.3 Natural Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.3.1 Stones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.3.2 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.4 Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.5 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.5.1 Changing the Processing Parameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.5.2 Addition of Other Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.6 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.6.1 Mortar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.6.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.7 Annexure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 259
