Strategies for Argument

242 Pages·2017·8.32 MB·English

PA R T
5
Strategies for
Argument

In Chapter 1, you were introduced to the four pillars of argument—thesis
statement, evidence, refutation, and concluding statement—the basic building
blocks of an effective argumentative essay. The chapters that follow expand
this discussion by illustrating and explaining different types of arguments.
Different purposes call for different argumentative strategies:
■ If you want to argue that something is (or is not) consistent with a particular
definition, you can write a definition argument: “Is Wikipedia a legitimate
research source?” See Chapter 12.
■ If you want your argument to take a stand on the causes or effects of
an event or situation, you can write a causal argument: “Should the
drinking age be lowered?” See Chapter 13.
■ If you want your argument to take a stand on the quality or worth of
something, you can write an evaluation argument: ”Are internships a
good deal for college students?” See Chapter 14.
■ If you want your argument to recommend a solution to a problem,
you can write a proposal argument: “Should the government do more
to relieve the student-loan burden?”See Chapter 15.
■ If you want to argue that your position on an issue is valid because the sit-
uation you present is similar to another situation, you can write an argu-
ment by analogy: “Should college athletes be paid?” See Chapter 16.
■ If your purpose is to recommend a course of action because it is good or
right (or argue against something because it is bad or wrong), you can write
an ethical argument: “How far should colleges go to keep campuses
safe?”See Chapter 17.
395

CHAPTER
12
Definition
Arguments
AT ISSUE
Is Wikipedia a Legitimate Research Source?
Wikipedia—the open-source online encyclo- Wikipedia as a source. According to Don Wyatt,
pedia—is probably the most frequently used chair of the department, “Even though Wikipe-
reference source on the planet. The use of this dia may have some value, particularly in lead-
encyclopedia is not without controversy, how- ing students to citable sources, it is not itself an
ever. Because anyone can write and edit entries, appropriate source for citation.” Others dis-
articles can—and do—contain errors. Over time, agree, pointing out that Wikipedia contains no
many errors get corrected, but some do not, more (and in some cases fewer) factual errors
perhaps because no one person or group is than traditional encyclopedias.
responsible for quality control. As a result, Later in this chapter, you will be asked to
many college instructors question the reliability think more about this issue. You will be given
of Wikipedia as a research source. In fact, aca- several research sources to consider and asked
demic departments at some schools—for to write a definition argument that takes a
example, the history department at Middlebury position on whether Wikipedia should be con-
College—have banned students from citing sidered a legitimate research source.
For comprehension quizzes,
seebedfordstmartins.com/practicalargument.
397
398 Part 5 Strategies for Argument
What Is a Definition Argument?
When you write an argumentative essay that depends on your definition of
a key term, it makes sense to structure your essay as a definitionargument.
In this type of essay, you will argue that something fits (or does not fit) the
definition of a particular class of items. For example, to argue that Wiki-
pedia is a legitimate research source, you have to define legitimate research
source and then show that Wikipedia fits this definition.
Many arguments focus on definition. In fact, you encounter them so
often that you probably do not recognize them for what they are. For
example, consider the following questions:
■ Is spanking child abuse?
■ Should offensive speech be banned on campus?
■ Should the rich pay more taxes than others?
■ Are energy-efficient light bulbs bad for the environment?
■ Is cheerleading a sport?
■ Is Wikipedia a legitimate research source?
You cannot answer these questions without providing definitions. In fact,
if you were writing an argumentative essay in response to one of these
questions, much of your essay would be devoted to defining and discussing
a key term.
KEY TERM TO
QUESTION BE DEFINED
Is spanking child abuse? child abuse
Should offensive speech be banned on campus? offensive speech
Should the rich pay more taxes than others? rich
Are energy-efficient light bulbs bad for the
environment? bad
IsWikipedia a legitimate research source? legitimate
research source
Many contemporary social and legal disputes involve definition argu-
ments. For example, did a coworker’s actions constitute sexual harassment?
Is an individual trying to enter the United States a political refugee or an
illegal alien? Is a combatant a terrorist or a freedom fighter? Is a person guilty
of murder or of manslaughter? Did soldiers engage in torture or in aggres-
sive questioning? Was the magazine cover satirical or racist? Is the punish-
ment just, or is it cruel and unusual? The answers to these and many other
questions hinge on definitions of key terms.
Chapter 12 Definition Arguments 399
Keep in mind, however, that defini-
tions can change as our thinking about
certain issues changes. For example, fifty
years ago the word family generally re-
ferred to one or more children living with
two heterosexual married parents. Now,
the term can refer to a wide variety of
situations—children living with single
parents, gay and lesbian couples, and
unmarried heterosexual couples, for exam-
ple. Our definition of what constitutes
cruel and unusual punishment has also
changed. Public hanging, a common
method of execution for hundreds of
years, is now considered barbaric.
Developing Definitions
The last public hanging
in the United States
Definitions explain terms that are unfamiliar to an audience. To make your
(Owensboro, Kentucky,
definitions as clear as possible, avoid making them too narrow,too broad, or
August 14, 1936)
circular.
A definition that is toonarrow leaves out information that is neces-
sary for understanding a particular word or term. For example, if you
define an apple as “a red fruit,” your definition is too narrow since some
apples are not red. To be accurate (and useful), your definition needs to
be more inclusive and acknowledge the fact that apples can be red, green,
or yellow.
A definition that is too broad includes things that should not be part
of the definition. If, for example, you define chair as “something that peo-
ple sit on,” your definition includes things that are not chairs—stools, park
benches, and even tree stumps. To be accurate, your definition needs to be
much more specific: “A chair is a piece of furniture that has a seat, legs,
arms, and a back and is designed to accommodate one person.”
A circular definition includes the word being defined as part of the
definition. For example, if you define patriotism as “the quality of being
patriotic,” your definition is circular. For the definition to work, you have
to provide new information that enables readers to understand the term:
“Patriotism is a belief characterized by love and support for one’s country,
especially its values and beliefs.”
The success of a definition argument depends on your ability to define
a term so that readers (even those who do not agree with your position)
will see its validity. For this reason, the rhetorical strategies you use to
develop your definitions are important.
400 Part 5 Strategies for Argument
NOTE
Sometimes you can clarify a definition by explaining how one term is
different from another similar term. For example, consider the follow-
ing definition:
Patriotism is different from nationalism because patriotism focuses
on love for a country while nationalism assumes the superiority of
one country over another.
Dictionary Definitions (Formal Definitions)
When most people think of definitions, they think of the formal definitions
they find in a dictionary. Typically, a formal dictionary definition consists
of the term to be defined, the general class to which the term belongs, and
the qualities that differentiate the term from other items in the same class.
TERM CLASS DIFFERENTIATION
dog a domesticated that has a snout, a keen sense
mammal of smell, and a barking voice
naturalism a literary whose followers believed that
movement writers should treat their characters’
lives with scientific objectivity
(cid:2)EXERCISE 12.1
Write a one-sentence formal definition of each of the following words.
Then, look each word up in a dictionary, and compare your definitions to
the ones you found there.
Terrorism Marriage
App Blog
Tablet Fairness
Extended Definitions
Although a definition argument may include a short dictionary definition,
a brief definition is usually not enough to define a complex or abstract
term. For example, if you were arguing that Wikipedia was a legitimate
research source, you would have to include an extended definition, explain-
ing to readers in some detail what you mean by this term and perhaps
giving examples of other research sources that fit your definition.
Examples are often used to develop an extended definition in an argumen-
tative essay. For instance, you could give examples to make the case that a
Chapter 12 Definition Arguments 401
particular baseball player, despite his struggles with
substance abuse, is a great athlete. You could define
great athlete solely in terms of athletic prowess, pre-
senting several examples of other talented athletes
and then showing that the baseball player you are
discussing possesses the same qualities.
For your examples to be effective, they have to be
relevant to your argument. Your examples also have
to represent (or at least suggest) the full range of
opinion concerning your subject. Finally, you have to
make sure that your readers will accept your exam-
ples as typical, not unusual. For example, in the Dec-
laration of Independence (p. 770), Thomas Jefferson
presented twenty-five paragraphs of examples to
support his extended definition of the king’s tyranny.
With these examples, he hoped to convince the world
that the colonists were justified in breaking away
from England. To accomplish his goal, Jefferson made
sure that his examples supported his position, that
they represented the full range of abuses, and that
they were not unusual or atypical.
(cid:2)EXERCISE 12.2 Writing the Declaration
of Independence, 1776
Choose one of the terms you defined in Exercise 12.1, and write a
by Jean Leon Gerome
paragraph-length definition argument that takes a position related to that
Ferris (Virginia Historical
term. Make sure you include two or three examples in your definition.
Society)
Operational Definitions
Whereas a dictionary definition tells what a term is, an operational defini-
tion defines something by telling how it acts or how it works. Thus, an oper-
ational definition transforms an abstract concept into something concrete,
observable, and possibly measurable. Children instinctively understand the
concept of operational definitions. When a parent tells them to behave, they
know what the components of this operational definition are: clean up your
room, obey your parents, come home on time, and do your homework.
Researchers in the natural and social sciences must constantly come up with
operational definitions. For example, if they want to study the effects of
childhood obesity, they have to construct an operational definition of obese.
Without such a definition, they will not be able to measure the various fac-
tors that make a person obese. For example, at what point does a child
become obese? Does he or she have to be 10% above normal weight? More?
Before researchers can carry out their study, they must agree on an opera-
tional (or working) definition.
402 Part 5 Strategies for Argument
Structuring a Definition Argument
In general terms, a definition argument can be structured as follows:
■ Introduction: Establishes a context for the argument by explaining the
need for defining the term; presents the essay’s thesis
■ Evidence (first point in support of thesis): Provides a short definition
of the term as well as an extended definition (if necessary)
■ Evidence (second point in support of thesis): Shows how the term
does or does not fit the definition
■ Refutation of opposing arguments: Addresses questions about or
objections to the definition; considers and rejects other possible mean-
ings (if any)
■ Conclusion: Reinforces the main point of the argument; includes a
strong concluding statement
(cid:2) The following student essay includes all the elements of a definition
argument. The student who wrote this essay is trying to convince his uni-
versity that he is a nontraditional student and is therefore entitled to the
benefits such students receive.
WHY I AM A NONTRADITIONAL STUDENT
ADAM KENNEDY
Ever since I started college, I have had difficulty getting the extra 1
help I need to succeed. My final disappointment came last week when
my adviser told me that I could not take advantage of the programs the
school offers to nontraditional students. She told me that because I am
not old enough, I simply do not qualify. This is confusing to me because
I am anything but a “traditional” student. In fact, I am one of the most
nontraditional students I know. In spite of my age—I am twenty-two—
I have had experiences that separate me from most other students my
Thesis statement age. The problem is that the school’s definition of the termnontraditional
is so narrow that it excludes people like me who should be able to qualify.