Strategies and Policies for Air Pollution Abatement: Review 2006

74 Pages·2008·35.36 MB·English

by  United Nations

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE
Geneva
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES
FOR AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT
2006 Review prepared under
The Convention on Long-rangeTransboundary Air Pollution
United Nations
New York and Geneva, 2007
NOTE
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I
Acknowledgements
The secretariat would like to acknowledge the work of Ms. Stephanie Maniourian, consultanr, in preparing
this publication.I t wouid also like to acknowledge the invaiuabie contribution of the Convention's Prcfrjramme
Centres, as weil as riationai experts.
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No. E07.11.E.24
ISBN 978-92-1-1 16977-5
Copyright United Nations, 2007
All rights reserved
UNECE Information Service Phone: [phone]
Palais des Nations Fax: [phone]
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For more information, consult the Convention's web site, or contact: Keith Bull,
Secretary, Executive Body of the Convention, Palais des Nations, CH-1 21 1 Geneva 10. Switzerland
(Tel. [phone] / Fax: [phone]).
Page
PREFACE
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION 1
I. CONVENTION ON LONG-RAGETRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION 1
A. Recent progress and the status of the Convention and its protocols 1
B. 1 he Convention's Executive Body and its main subsidiary bodies 1
C. Capacity-building activities 1
D. Future work under the Convention 1
II. TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTION EMISSIONS AND EFFECTS 1
A. Emission Levels and trends 1
B. Trends in effects 2
III. IMPLEMENTATION OF AND PROGRESS IN NATIONAL STRATEGIES
AND POLICIES 2
A. The 1985 Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or Their Transboundary
Fluxes by At Least 30 Per Cent 2
B. The 1988 Protocol Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or
TheirTransboundary Fluxes 2
C. The 1991 Protocol Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds
or Their Transboundary Fluxes 2
D. The 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reductions of Sulphur Emissions 3
E. The 1998 Protocol on Heavy Metals 3
F. The 1998 Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants 3
G. The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification,
Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone 3
IV. STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR CONTROLLING LONG-RANGE
TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION IN THE UNECE REGION 4
A. General trends and priorities in combating air pollution 4
B. Innovative approaches and emerging technologies 4
C. Cross-sectoral and multi-pollutant approaches 4
D. Market-oriented policies and economic instruments 4
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT
ANNEX
Table 1: Sulphur content of gas oil (%or ppm)
Table 2: Selected measures for reducing lead, mercury and cadmium emissions, by sector
Figure 1: Parties to the Convention on Long-rangeTransboundary Air Pollution
Figure 2: Organizational structure of the Convention
Figure 3: Fifth percentile ofthe maximum critical load for sulphur within the EMEP-50 km grid
Figure 4: Fifth percentile of the critical load of nutrient nitrogen within the EMEP-50 km grid
Figure 5: Emission trends of sulphur in the EMEP area, 1990-2005.2010
Figure 6: Emission trendsof nitrogen oxides in the EMEP area, 1990-2005,2010
Figure 7: Emission trends of ammonia in the EMEP area, 1990-2005.2010
Figure 8: Emission trends of NMVOCs in the EMEP area, 19902005,2010
Figure 9: Emission trends of POPS in the M€ EP area, 1990-2005
Figure 10: Emission trends of heavy metals in the EMEP area, 1990-2005
Figure 11: Emission trends of particulate matter in the EMEP area, 1990-2005.2010
Figure 12 a: United States NOx EmissionTrends in PEMA States (1 990-2004)
Figure 12 b: United StatesVOC EmissionTrends in PEMA States (1 990-2004)
Figure 12 c: Canada NOx EmissionTrends in PEMA Region (1990-2002)
Figure 12 d: Canada VOC EmissionTrends in PEMA Region (1990-2002)
Figure 12 e: Trends in SO, Emissions: Canada and the United States
Figure 13: Emissions of sulphur in 2005 at 50km resolution
Figure 14: Emissions of nitrogen oxides in 2005 at 50 km resolution
Figure 15: Emissions of ammonia in 2005 at 50 km resolution
Figure 16: Emissions of NMVOCs in 2005 at 50 km resolution
Figure 17a: Emissions of PM coarse in 2005 at 50 km resolution
Figure 17b: Emissions of PM 2.5 in 2005 at 50 km resolution
Figure 18: Anthropogenic emissions per sector of SOx in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 19: Anthropogenic emissions per sector of NOx in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 20: Anthropogenic emissions per sector of NMVOCs in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure21: Anthropogenic emissions per sector of ammonia in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 22 a: Anrhropogenic emissions per sector of PM 2.5. in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 22 b: Anthropogenic emissions per sector of PM coarse in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 23: Sectoral emissions for heavy metals in 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 24: Sectoral emissions for POPSi n 2005 in the EMEP area
Figure 25: Reduction in emissions of NO, in the ECE region (1 990-2005)
Figure 26: Reduction in emissions of NMVOCs in the ECE region (1990-2005)
Figure 27: Reduction in emissions of sulphur in the ECE region (19 90-2005)
Figure 28: Reduction in emissions of ammonia in the ECE region (1 990-2005)
Figure 29: Percentage reduction in SO,, NO, NH, and NMVOC (1 990-2005)
Figure 30: Effects of pollutants covered by the Convention's protocols
Figure 31: Ecosystem area protected from acidification in every EMEP-50 km
grid cell for the years 1990,2000,201 0 and 2020
Figure 32: Ecosystem area protected from eutrophication in every EMEP-50 km grid cell for
the years 1990,2000,201 0 and 2020
Figure 33: Status of ratification of protocois as of 15 September 2007
he Convention on Long-range Transboundary 5.1 of the 1994 Protocol on Sulphur, art* 9.2
Air Pollution, signed in Geneva in 1979, is of the Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants,
a landmark international agreement. For artkle 7. 2 of the Protocol on Heavy Metals and
more than 25 years it has been instrumental In artkle 7.2 of the Gothenburg Protocol (ECEI
reducing emissions contributing to transboundary EB.AIRl87, para. 70(b)).
air pollution In the UNECE reglon through
coordinated efforts on research, monitoring and The overall aim of the review of strategies and
the development of emission reduction strategies policies Is:
on regional air pollution and its effect%
(a) To asses the progress made by Parties and the
~ a s a w h o b I n I ~ u b l i g l r t i a n r
session, the Executive Body decided that the. the Convention. The review reflects the continued
questionnaire would represent the uniform efforts made by Parties to comply wlth their
reporting framework rofemd to in artlcle 8.2 of obligations under inte'matlonal environmental
the Protocol on Nltmgen Oxides, artkk 8.4 of the agreements, and to contrlbuto to a cleaner
Protocol on Volatlle Organk Compounds, article environment in the region.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Convention on Long-range Transboundary damage and recovery as well as providing data
, Pollution, signed in Geneva in 1979, is a that are essential to derive response mechanisms
~dmarki nternational agreement. For more and for developing predictive models. Linking
LIWI L; years it has been instrumental in reducing these scientific activities and policy development,
emissions contributing to transboundary air pollu- for example using integrated assessment
tion in the UNECE region through coordinated modelling, remains an important feature of the
efforts on research, monitoring and the develop- Convention's approach to develop protocols and
ment of emission reduction strategies on regional abate air pollution. Concentrations of sulphur
air pollution and its effects. As of 15 September dioxide in Europe continued to decrease: 65% from
2007, 51 member states of UNECE and the 1990 to 2004. Concentrations of other pollutants
European Community were Parties to the have also decreased over the same period: nitrogen
Convention. oxide (NOx) by 30% volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) by 38% and ammonia by 22%.
The 2006 Review was prepared mainly on the basis
of replies to a questionnaire on strategies and Effects, particularly acidification, have fallen in
policies for air pollution abatement received from line with the drop in emissions. This was especially
24 Parties. The questionnaire was used as a tool notable in fresh waters in some regions. However,
for determining compliance by Parties to the there remain concerns about nitrogen depositions,
Convention and its Protocols, as well as for ozone concentrations, and the effects of particulate
the collection and dissemination of more maner on human health.
general information on air pollution abatement
technologies and trends. The Executive Body has placed increased emphasis
on the implementation of the Convention and its
Early sections of the Review summarize the status Protocols, in particular in Parties with economies
of ratification of the Convention and its protocols in transition. The project "Capacity Building for Air
(part I, section A); describe the Convention and Quality Management and the Application of Clean
the activities of its main subsidiary bodies (section Coal Combustion. .T@dogica in WrJ&!. B" ..
B); underline the importance of ca~acitv-buildina
-
' 1
STRATEGIES AND POLICIES FOR AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT
Current priorities under the Convention have included The Protocol Concerning the Control of Emissions of
the finalization of the reviews of the three most recent Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes (Sofia,
protocols: the 1998 Protocol on Heavy Metals, the 1998 1988) calls on Parties to apply national emission
Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS) and standards to aH major source categories and new
the 1999 Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication stationary and mobile source using economically
and Ground-level Ozone (Gothenburg Protocol). For feasible BAT, while developing pollution control
the Gothenburg Protocol there is already increased measures for existing stationary sources. The
interest in the health effects of particulate matter and in Protocol also requires Parties to make unleaded fuel
the issue of how hemispheric transport of air pollution sufficiently available to facilitate the circulation of
might be addressed in a revised or amended protocol. vehicles equipped with catalytic converters. The
In addition, many Parties are keen to consider synergies transport sector continued to be a main source of NOx
and tradeoffs with climate change and take account of emissions in most countries. Parties therefore focused
the nitrogen cycle in protocol development. For the on enforced speed limits and traffic management
Protocol on POPS, there will be a continued focus on schemes, as well as subsidies to improve public
transport systems, emphasis on a modal shift
new substances. Expert peer reviewers have evaluated
from road to rail transport, and improvements in
proposed substances and recommendations have been
vehicle fuel efficiency, including the replacement of
made to the Executive Body for their addition to one
older, more polluting vehicles with newer, cleaner
or more of the annexes in the Protocol. Exploration of
ones. Technical measures to reduce NOx emissions
management options to control the use of some of
from stationary sources included selective catalytic
these substances is also a priority, as is the determination
reduction units retrofitted on existing coal- and
of the most appropriate way (from a legal perspective)
gas-fired electric utility boilers; low-NOx burners
to amend the Protocol. For the Protocol on Heavy
retrofitted to combustion units; and, a cap-and-trade
Metals, while no new substances have been proposed,
programme for large electricity-generating units and
Parties have been encouraged to work on an effects-
large industrial boilers and turbines. Emissions from
based approach to formulating future optimized control
large stationary sources were often controlled through
strategies for heavy metals.
permits and licences.
Implementation of protocols and progress on
The Protocol on the Control of Emissions of Volatile
national strategies and policies
Organic Compounds or Their Transboundary Fluxes
(Geneva, 1991) requires Parties to reduce their VOC
All eight protocols to the Convention are now in force,
emissions by 30% by 1999, from selected base years
and Parties were asked in the questionnaire to comment
between 1984 and 1990, and to maintain them below
on their implementation.
those levels. Strategies pursued by Parties included
legislation targeting VOC emissions from transport; use of
National strategies, policies and programmes used by BAT to control and reduce VOC emissions from existing
governments to abate or reduce sulphur emissions stationary sources in major source categories, such
under both the Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur as leak repairs, operating and performance standards,
Emission or Their Transboundary Fluxes by At Least 30 biofiltration, vapour processing at tank loading, end-of-
Per Cent (Helsinki, 1985) and the Protocol on Further pipe technology, low-solvent alternatives, new drying
Reductions of Sulphur Emissions (Oslo, 1994) included technology, less volatile cleaning agents, incineration
the control of the sulphur content of fuel, energy and closed moulding in polyester processing and
efficiency measures, the promotion of renewable energy recycling; and measures to reduce the volatility of petrol
and the application of best available technologies (BAT). during refuelling operations.
Approaches used by Parties to reduce sulphur emissions
included investment in alternative energy sources such The 1998 Protocol on Heavy Metals (Aarhus, 1998)
as wind power generation to reduce dependence on targets three particularly harmful metals that are listed
sulphur-emitting fossil fuels, or promoting renewable in an annex to the Protocol: cadmium, lead and mercury.
energy sources, including hydropower and biomass, and Leaded petrol was largely phased out by Parties or was
the use of natural gas in large industrial plants. Parties in the process of being phased out. The most common
have promoted renewable energy and energy efficiency strategies to tackle pollution from heavy metals
through market-based incentives such as tax incentives, were economic instruments; voluntary agreements;
subsidies and eco-labelling. conservation; clean energy sources; clean transport
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
systems; dust abatement measures; phasing out of techniques for slurry and urine spreading, and using
processes that emit heavy metals; and product control band spreaders. Many of these measures were reflected
measures. in national advisory codes of good agricultural practices.
The objective of the Protocol on Persistent Organic General trends and priorities in combating air
Pollutants (Aarhus, 1998) is to control, reduce or
pollution
eliminate discharges, emissions and losses of POPs. The
Protocol currently recognizes a list of 16 POPs that resist
In addition to providing information on Protocols in
degradation under natural conditions and that have
force, Parties described their general policy directions
been associated with adverse effects on human health
and priorities in tackling air pollution. These included
and the environment. Measures used by Parties to reduce
public information campaigns and voluntary schemes,
and control POPs included better management of toxic
dissuasive taxes and fines, and positive incentives to
waste; regulating emissions from waste incineration
promote the use of renewable energy and cleaner
plants; and regulations limiting the import, production,
fuels, including biofuels (biodiesel, bioethanol). There
supply, use and export of substances that might present
were clear trends in all responding countries to retrofit
a hazard to the environment.
old vehicles, which involved retrofitting soot filters
on all categories of vehicles and mobile machinery.
The Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication
Environmental impact assessments were increasingly
and Ground-level Ozone (Gothenburg, 1999) is an
required for major new projects in an attempt to reduce
innovative multi-effect, multi-pollutant protocol that
their negative environmental impact. Many Parties
aims to simultaneously address the three effects it
reported they were investing in new technologies to
describes through controlling the pollutants causing
reduce air pollution or to mitigate its impact and were
them. It promotes action within the UNECE region and
supporting the development of new environmental
sets an example for action worldwide. The Protocol
technologies, including in heating and control systems,
seeks to control and reduce emissions of sulphur, NOx,
domestic hot water and sanitary systems, ventilation,
ammonia and VOCs from anthropogenic sources. It is
white goods, lighting and industry. Cross-sectorai and
the first Protocol under the Convention to tackle more
multi-pollutant approaches were gaining in popularity,
than one pollutant, and the first to address ammonia.
including the integration of air pollution policies into
It sets emission ceilings for 2010 for the four pollutants,
sectoral policies, particularly agricultural, energy, health
negotiated on the basis of scientific assessments of
and transport policy.
pollution effects and abatement options. Once the
Protocol is fully implemented, Europe's emissions
Compliance mechanism
should be cut significantly for sulphur (63%). NOx (41%).
VOCs (40%) and ammonia (17%), compared to 1990.
Over the same time in the North American Pollutant The text of the below paragraphs was submitted by the
Chair of the lmplementation Committee in response
Emission Management Area (PEMA), levels for Canada
to a request by delegations to clarify the compliance
and the United States of N O p C a re expected to fall
procedures under the Convention.
by 34%/29% and 5196/49% respectively. Sulphur levels
An effective compliance mechanism is an important
in Canada and the United States fell 36% and 27%
component of the success of the Convention. Parties
respectively by 2004.
must demonstrate that they have complied with their
obligations under the Convention. This includes both
Aside from the strategies and policies cited by Parties
their obligations to reduce emissions under Protocols
for reducing sulphur, NOx and VOCs, approaches used to
they are Party to and their obligation to report this
abate ammonia, in particular from agricultural sources,
information. Reporting on strategies and policies,
included covering stores of solid manure that were not
emission reporting and emission reduction are all
in daily use, covers on slurry containers on livestock
monitored by an Implementation Committee, which
holdings, bans on surface spreading, reductions in the
time that applied manure was allowed to remain on the oversees compliance by Parties with their respective
obligations.
ground surface, bans on ammonia treatment of straw,
and limiting local ammonia voiatilization from livestock
in the vicinity of vulnerable natural habitat types. Other The lmplementation Committee was established by
Parties cited voluntary measures such as incorporating a decision of the Executive Body in 1997 (EB Decision
manure within four hours after spreading, using injection 1997/2) laying out its three primary tasks: