Table Of ContentU.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Land Management
Strategic Plan for
Amphibian and Reptile Conservation
April 2022
Cover photo: Desert nightsnake (Hypsiglena chlorophaea) by C. Peterson
Executive Summary photos from left to right:
Desert horned lizard (Phrynosoma platyrhinos) by Fiana Shapiro
Smooth green snake (Opheodrys vernalis) by J.D. Willson
Sonora mud turtle (Kinosternon sonoriense) by T. Burr
North American green toad (Anaxyrus debilis) by J.D. Willson
Suggested citation:
Bureau of Land Management. 2022. Strategic Plan for Amphibian and Reptile Conservation.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Division of Wildlife Conservation,
Aquatics, and Environmental Protection, Lakewood, CO.
Disclaimer:
The mention of company names, trade names, or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the Federal Government.
Production services provided by:
Bureau of Land Management
National Operations Center Information and Publishing Services Section
P.O. Box 25047
Denver, CO 80225
BLM/HQ/GI-22/002+6515
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Land Management
Strategic Plan for
Amphibian and Reptile
Conservation
April 2022
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Rio Grande cooter (Pseudemys gorzugi) by Kurt Buhlmann
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Contents AN
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Executive Summary ................................................................................. iv PH
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Introduction..........................................................................................1 IA
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A Need for Conservation..........................................................................1 N
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Threats to Herpetofauna Habitats and Populations ................................................2 E
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Benefits of a Herpetofauna Strategy...............................................................4 ILE
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BLM Herpetofauna Strategy Goals, Objectives, and Actions ............................................5 N
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Goal 1: Inventory BLM herpetofauna resources and identify needs .................................5 V
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Goal 2: Identify and address threats to BLM herpetofauna habitats and populations ................6 IO
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Goal 3: Increase the BLM’s role in herpetofauna communication and collaboration..................7
Goal 4: Improve BLM business practices, policies, and planning with respect to
herpetofauna management and conservation .............................................8
Goal 5: Increase science support tools and information for herpetofauna species and
habitat management......................................................................8
Conclusion...........................................................................................9
Laws and Policies Guiding Herpetofauna Management ...............................................10
References ..........................................................................................11
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D The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is and sustainability of herpetofauna and their
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N responsible for managing approximately 245 habitats, the BLM will enhance recovery of ESA-
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BI million acres of public lands mostly in the Western listed species, preclude the need for listing under
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P United States and approximately 710 million the ESA, and develop and maintain partnerships,
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A acres of subsurface mineral estate nationwide. while promoting biodiversity and ecologically
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O In accordance with the Federal Land Policy and resilient landscapes.
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A Management Act (FLPMA) of 1976, the BLM
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E multiple use and sustained yield. FLPMA requires herpetofauna within the BLM; guide the state,
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R that “the public lands be managed in a manner district, and field offices in the efficient and
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S that will…provide food and habitat for fish effective management of habitats; and support
and wildlife…” (Section 102(a)(8)). FLPMA also the recovery of herpetofauna populations where
includes “fish and wildlife development and they have declined on public lands. The strategy
utilization” as one of the six “principal or major outlines five overarching goals:
uses” of the public lands (Section 103(l)). BLM
policy implements these provisions of law by, for 1. Inventory BLM herpetofauna resources and
example, directing the BLM “to manage habitat identify needs.
with emphasis on ecosystems to ensure self- 2. Identify and address threats to BLM
sustaining populations and a natural abundance herpetofauna habitats and populations.
and diversity of wildlife, fish, and plant resources 3. Increase the BLM’s role in herpetofauna
on the public lands” (BLM Manual 6500, “Wildlife communication and collaboration.
and Fisheries Management”). 4. Improve BLM business practices, policies,
and planning with respect to herpetofauna
This legal and policy framework applies to more management and conservation.
than 100 BLM special status amphibian and reptile 5. Increase science support tools and information
(herpetofauna) species, including herpetofauna for herpetofauna species and habitat
species listed under the Endangered Species management.
Act (ESA) of 1973, that occur on BLM-managed
lands. The BLM requires a strategic commitment The BLM’s objectives to achieve these
of resources to implement management, goals are focused on management actions,
conservation, and protection activities for these best management practices, partnerships,
species and their habitats. By proactively and collaborations, and increasing awareness of
collaboratively contributing to the management herpetofauna resources on BLM-managed lands.
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Introduction AN
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The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is A Need for Conservation P
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responsible for managing approximately 245 IA
Herpetofauna are the only terrestrial ectothermic N
million acres of public lands mostly in the Western A
(cold-blooded) vertebrates and thus have N
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United States and approximately 710 million R
biological and ecological needs that differ from E
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acres of subsurface mineral estate nationwide. warm-blooded wildlife (Pough 1980). Many IL
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amphibians have a two-part life history, during C
The mission of the BLM is to sustain the health, O
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which their habitat needs transfer from wetlands S
diversity, and productivity of the public lands E
to uplands. As such, herpetofauna serve to RV
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for the use and enjoyment of present and future transfer energy among aquatic and terrestrial TIO
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generations. In accordance with the Federal Land environments and function as both predators and
prey. Herpetofauna populations can also achieve
Policy and Management Act (FLPMA) of 1976, the
remarkable densities and serve an important
BLM manages public lands under the principles
role in the uptake, retention, and distribution of
of multiple use and sustained yield. FLPMA
nutrients. The presence of healthy herpetofauna
requires that “the public lands be managed in a populations has cascading effects on ecosystems,
such as in predator-prey interactions and energy
manner that will…provide food and habitat for
flow and nutrient cycling (Stebbins and Cohen
fish and wildlife…” (Section 102(a)(8)). FLPMA
1995). Consequently, herpetofauna serve as
also includes “fish and wildlife development and
indicators of environmental health, as well as
utilization” as one of the six “principal or major significant contributors to biodiversity (Welsh and
Ollivier 1998).
uses” of the public lands (Section 103(l)). BLM
policy implements these provisions of law by, for
Approximately 32% of the world’s amphibians
example, directing the BLM “to manage habitat
have been categorized as vulnerable, endangered,
with emphasis on ecosystems to ensure self- or critically endangered, and greater than 43%
are in decline (Stuart et al. 2004). Reptiles also are
sustaining populations and a natural abundance
in decline, and one in five of the world’s reptile
and diversity of wildlife, fish, and plant resources
species may soon be extinct (Böhm et al. 2013),
on the public lands” (BLM Manual 6500, “Wildlife
including more than 50% of all turtle species
and Fisheries Management”). (Rhodin et al. 2011). In the United States, nearly
all native amphibians inhabit only a portion of
their historic range. More than 100 herpetofauna
The BLM’s approach to amphibian and reptile
species that occur on BLM-managed lands are
(herpetofauna) conservation seeks to understand,
currently identified as BLM special status species,
predict, and address the wide-ranging threats including those listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service under the Endangered Species Act (ESA)
that are impacting these species. This strategy is
of 1973.
intended to implement effective management
actions for conservation of herpetofauna habitats
and populations through collaborative efforts
across BLM programs and with BLM partners.
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N Threats to Herpetofauna Habitats where exacerbated by the presence of dams and
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A and Populations
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N and metamorphosis (Daszak et al. 2005).
O Habitat fragmentation, degradation, and loss
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P declines (Lesbarrères et al. 2014). When the
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D lands and waters herpetofauna need to breed,
N the growth and spread of harmful pathogens and
A disperse, migrate, feed, and rest are fragmented
AN (i.e., become patchy or disconnected), these diseases has resulted in population reductions,
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A declines in diversity and abundance. Habitat
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O loss and degradation can disrupt population
N F connectivity, diminishing the rate of dispersal and potential and effect on populations because of
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P recolonization (Colino-Rabanal and Lizana 2012).
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GI Habitat connectivity allows for gene flow between Some pathogens are easily spread to other areas
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A subpopulations and colonization of newly
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the public (Garner et al. 2006).
ranges as environmental changes occur.
Invasive species negatively impact herpetofauna
Effects of climate change, weather extremes,
through the degradation and reduction of viable
drought, and water availability substantially
habitats for native species (Ostoja and Schupp
impact herpetofauna in a variety of ways.
2009). Invasive plants can reduce food resources
Increasing temperatures result in altered moisture
or other habitat components and can alter fire
and precipitation, saltwater intrusion into
dynamics to the detriment of some herpetofauna
freshwater areas, higher intensity coastal storm
species (Esque et al. 2003). For example, large-
surges, changing temperature patterns and
scale wildfires, often facilitated by invasive annual
growing seasons, changing hydroperiod, increased
grass expansion, typically lead to a reduction of
threats from large-scale wildfires, invasions of
vegetation cover at landscape scales, reducing
nonnative species and diseases, and changes
herpetofauna biodiversity and habitat structure and
to the quality and temperature of aquatic and
complexity in burned areas (Rochester et al. 2010).
wetland habitats that are critical to the survival of
herpetofauna (Corn 2005; Wake 2007). Increased
Nonnative herpetofauna, often the result of
temperatures and reduced precipitation may
importations for the pet trade, can outcompete
also cause some herpetofauna species to be
and extirpate native species. Other nonnative
subject to decreases in fitness resulting from
animals, whether domesticated or wild, can increase
negative impacts to their energetics, growth,
predation pressure on herpetofauna populations
and reproduction (Zani and Rollyson 2011;
and alter habitats. For example, the American
Sadoti et al. 2017). Temperature fluctuations
bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), a large frog native to
may also adversely affect some herpetofauna
eastern North America, is considered one of the most
species by causing skewed sex ratios at hatching
harmful invasive species globally, can outcompete
or birth (Wapstra et al. 2009). Changes in the
and prey on native amphibians, and consistently
timing, amount, and type of precipitation (e.g.,
serves as a vector for infectious amphibian
snow vs. rain) are expected to negatively impact
diseases (Garner et al. 2006; Ficetola et al. 2007).
herpetofauna habitat, resulting in predicted range
contractions for several reptile species (Hatten
Pesticides, fertilizers, and other terrestrial and
et al. 2016; Griffis-Kyle et al. 2018). Amphibian
aquatic contaminants have also been implicated
populations are negatively affected by altered
in the decline of native herpetofauna species
flow events in creeks and rivers, especially
and contribute to the decline of the biomass
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in the Northeast, Southeast, and Pacific regions of S
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the United States (Gunderson et al. 2001; Metts et A
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al. 2005; Pounds et al. 2006; Haas et al. 2018). G
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Lastly, exposed vertical, hollow pipes with open N
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tops that are 12-inches or less in diameter have O
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been identified as an inadvertent trapping hazard M
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to herpetofauna (Brattstrom 1995; Harris et al. H
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2019). For example, lizards and snakes enter the IA
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pipes from uncapped tops and/or perforated A
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sides; become trapped inside; and die from R
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starvation, dehydration, and heat. In addition P
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to open topped fence pipes, posts, survey ILE
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markers, outbuilding vents, and other structures, O
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American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) by Chris Petersen S
approximately 10-20 million mining claim markers E
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exist on BLM-managed lands, many of which are A
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open vertical pipes. Identifying and capping or IO
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and diversity of invertebrate species that serve replacing these open, uncapped hollow pipes
as their prey (Johnson et al. 2007; Lesbarrères et present a unique opportunity for the BLM and
al. 2014). These types of contaminants, including associated permittees/claimants to prevent
pharmaceuticals, have also been found to wildlife mortalities.
have deleterious developmental effects (e.g.,
deformities and reproductive abnormalities) on
native amphibians (Taylor et al. 2005; Brühl et al.
2013).
Mining, energy development, logging, ungulate
grazing, and other land use activities that reduce
vegetative cover and soil stability can contribute
to direct habitat loss and fragmentation and
may contribute to sedimentation and other
water quality issues (Ross et al. 2000; Beever and
Brussard 2004; Colino-Rabanal and Lizana 2012;
Kay et al. 2017; Chalfoun 2021). Sedimentation can
threaten stream amphibians by filling in habitat
spaces between rocks and other cover items,
reducing access to key refugia, and increasing
exposure to predation. Sedimentation can also
cover and smother egg masses, potentially
reducing egg and larvae success by reducing
oxygen exchange (Pilliod et al. 2003). In addition,
the presence of chemical contaminants and
increased water temperatures associated with
some land use activities can directly and indirectly
affect survival, development, and metamorphosis
of amphibian larvae; can increase rates of disease
transmission; can reduce reproductive success and
fitness in reptiles; and was found to have a positive San Joaquin coachwhip (Coluber flagellum ruddocki)
correlation with amphibian limb malformations by Michael Westphal
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N Benefits of a Herpetofauna A strategic BLM effort for the conservation of
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A Strategy
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LE C resource steward, the BLM faces increasing will enhance, restore, and promote healthy public
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P responsibilities to be proactive, productive, and
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D accountable to the public, local communities,
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A and policy makers. It is crucial that the BLM
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Desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) by Fiana Shapiro
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