Table Of ContentStoring Energy
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Storing Energy
with Special Reference to Renewable
Energy Sources
Second Edition
Edited by
Trevor M. Letcher
Emeritus Professor, School of Chemistry,
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban,
South Africa
Elsevier
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Contents
List ofcontributors xv
Preface xxi
Section A Introduction 1
1 Globalwarming,greenhouse gases, renewable energy, and storing
energy 3
Trevor M. Letcher
1 Introduction 3
2 Global warmingand greenhouse gases 3
3 Carbon dioxidein theatmosphere 5
4 Renewable energy 7
5 Our presentenergy situation 7
6 The urgent needfor storing energy 10
7 Conclusion 11
References 11
2 Energy storage options tobalance renewable electricitysystems 13
Paul E. Dodds and Seamus D.Garvey
1 Introduction 13
2 The need for newtypes of storage 14
3 Storage technologies 18
4 Comparing storage systems 22
5 Challenges for energy storage 23
6 Conclusions 30
References 31
Section B Gravitational/thermomechanical storage techniques 35
3 Pumped hydro storage (PHS) 37
Julian DavidHunt,Behnam Zakeri, Andreas Nascimento and
Roberto Brand~ao
1 Introduction 37
2 Storage cycles duration 42
3 Conventional arrangement types 45
vi Contents
4 Services provided by PHS plants 47
5 New arrangementsfor PHS 50
6 Pump-turbinetypes 54
7 World potential for PHS 58
8 Conclusion 59
Acknowledgments 61
References 61
4 Novelhydroelectric storage concepts 67
Frank Escombe
1 Introduction 67
2 High-density fluidPHES 69
3 Piston-in-cylinderelectrical energy storage 72
4 Endpiece 89
References 90
5 Gravity energy storage systems 91
Miles Franklin, Peter Fraenkel, Chris Yendell and Ruth Apps
1 Introduction 91
2 History 93
3 Physics 95
4 The Gravitricitysystem 102
5 Technical characteristics 107
6 Levelized cost and comparison with other technologies 111
7 Market 113
8 Gravitricity technology development 115
References 115
6 Compressed airenergystorage (CAES) 117
SeamusD. Garvey and Andrew Pimm
1 Introduction 117
2 CAES:modes ofoperationand basic principles 119
3 Aircontainments for CAES 125
4 System configurations and plant concepts 131
5 Thermal storage for CAES 135
6 Performance metrics for CAES 137
7 Integrating CAES with generationor consumption 138
8 Concluding remarks 139
References 139
Further reading 140
7 Compressed airenergystorage 141
Sabine Donadei and Gregor-S€onke Schneider
1 Introduction 141
2 Mode of operation 142
Contents vii
3 Plant concept 144
4 Undergroundstorages 147
References 154
8 Underwater compressed air energy storage 157
Andrew Pimm and SeamusD. Garvey
1 Introduction 157
2 Storage vessels for UWCAES 158
3 Anchorage and installation 163
4 System configurations 166
5 Locations 168
6 Cost and efficiency 169
7 Contrasting UWCAESwith puregravitational storage approaches
indeepwater 174
8 State of development 174
9 Concluding remarks 175
References 176
9 Anovelpumped hydro combined with compressed airenergy
storage system 179
Erren Yao, Hansen Zou, Ruixiong Li,Huanran Wang and Guang Xi
1 Introduction 179
2 Basic principlesof PHCA system 180
3 Characteristics ofPHCA system 181
4 Anovel constant-pressurePHCA system 182
5 Storage density analysis 183
6 Thermodynamicanalysis 184
7 Results 186
References 189
10 Liquidair energy storage 191
Yulong Ding, Yongliang Li, LigeTongandLi Wang
1 Introduction 191
2 Energy and exergy densities of liquid air 192
3 Liquid air asbotha storage medium and an efficient working fluid 194
4 Applicationsof LAES throughintegration 196
5 Technical andeconomical comparison ofLAES withother energy
storagetechnologies 203
References 205
11 Flywheel energy storage 207
Keith R. Pullen
1 Introduction 207
2 Principles ofoperation 209
3 High-performanceelectric flywheelstorage systems 217
viii Contents
4 Performance attributes incomparisonwithother electrical storage
technologies 227
5 Current and future applications 232
6 Conclusion 240
References 240
12 Rechargeable lithium-ion battery systems 243
Matthias Vetter and StephanLux
1 Introduction 243
2 Physicalfundamentalsof lithium-ion batteries 244
3 Development oflithium-ion batterystorage systems 244
4 System integration 259
5 Conclusions 261
References 262
Section C Electrochemical and electrical energy storage
techniques 263
13 The road topotassium-ion batteries 265
Titus Masese andGodwill MbitiKanyolo
1 Introduction 265
2 The evolutionof modernbatteries 265
3 Mechanismsof lithium-ion battery operations 266
4 Cathode chemistries 269
5 Electrolytes 277
6 Anode materials 288
7 Beyondcation intercalation chemistries 294
8 Perspectives 298
Acknowledgments 300
References 300
14 Lithiumesulfur battery: Generation 5 ofbattery energy
storage systems 309
Mahdokht Shaibani and Mainak Majumder
1 Introduction 309
2 Anatomyof LieS battery, challenges, and latest developments 310
3 Potential applications oflightweight LieS battery: existing,
emerging, and new avenues 320
4 Conclusion and outlook: custom-designed LieS batteryis onits way 323
References 324
15 Sodiumesulfur batteries 329
Zhen Li andJingyi Wu
1 Introduction 329
2 Principles of NaeS batteries 330
Contents ix
3 Technical challenges 332
4 Cathode 334
5 Anodes 336
6 Electrolyte 338
7 Cell configuration 340
8 Conclusions and perspectives 340
References 340
16 All-solid-state batteries 343
Zhen LiandYuyuLi
1 Introduction 343
2 Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) 343
3 Interface in ASS-L/SIBs 353
4 Conclusion 357
References 358
17 Vanadium redox flow batteries 363
Christian Doetschand Jens Burfeind
1 Introduction and historic development 363
2 The functionof theVRFB 364
3 Electrolytes ofVRFB 369
4 VRFB versus other battery types 370
5 Application of VRFB 371
6 Recycling, environment, safety, and availability 373
7 Other flow batteries 374
References 378
Furtherreading 380
18 Supercapacitors 383
Narendra Kurraand Qiu Jiang
1 Introduction 383
2 Basics ofcharge storage 384
3 Historical evolution from capacitors toelectrical double-layer
capacitors 386
4 Modelsto explain electricaldouble layers 389
5 Evolutionof electrode materials for supercapacitors 394
6 State-of-the-artenergy storage technologies 396
7 Pseudocapacitiveenergy storage 397
8 Material requirements for achievingsimultaneous high energy
densityat high powerdensity 400
9 Electrochemical characterization techniquesfor supercapacitors 401
10 Energy storagedevices 406
11 Applicationsof supercapacitors 411
12 Conclusions andchallenges 413
References 414
