Step in Electronics Practicals: Real world circuits applications 2 : From Theories to Practicals

444 Pages·2015·30.76 MB·English

by  Ibyimanikora Ibrahim

S
tep
in
E
lectronics practicals
R
eal world circuits applications
2
IBYIMANIKORA Ibrahim
T P
heories racticals

From to
Dedicace
God Almight
Parents
Jyuyisenga Annick Rebecca
Notice
All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means including recording, mechanical, photocopying or
storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or
incidentally to some other use of this publication without the written permission
of the copyright owner.
Under The intellectual property law no 31/2009 of 26/10/2009
Copyright number RW/C/2015/145
Copyright © 2015
ISBN-10: 1517491371
ISBN-13: 9781517491376
Scan this QR code for contact details
Tel: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]
KIGALI-RWANDA
Book with the same Author
Electronics Practicals “real world circuits applications”;
ISBN: 9781523374861
iii
Preface
The field of electronics is very diverse, and career opportunities are available in many areas.
Because electronics is currently found in so many different applications and new technology is
being developed at a fast rate, its feature appears limitless. There is hardly an area of our lives
that is not enhanced to some degree by electronics technology. The study of electronics is one of
the basic steps in gaining an understanding of all modern technology and science also; our ev-
eryday life depends a lot on the electronic. So this book of step in electronics practicals provides
a comprehensive and clear coverage of electronic practical concepts, practical applications and
troubleshooting. It is designed to cover a wide range of topics that make up the field of electron-
ics in well-organized and highly informative manner. Special emphasis is placed on practical
applications; thus, this book in not theoretical one, but an enlightening practicals of the useful-
ness of rapidly growing field of electronics. In this book many topics have been strengthened and
some topics, innovative and features have been added related to the real world. These practical
topics are coordinated with the text showing working principles and their practical design and
will make any candidate to be more effective in practical applications. Additionally, real world
circuits design make the book more visually interesting and easier to use. The circuits provided
have been simulated using reliable and accurate method and tested using real components. The
presentation is tutorial in nature in order to enhance the value of the book to the reader and foster
a clear understanding of practical project topics.
This book of Step in Electronics Practicals will provide the required practical skills that is
useful for ENGINEERING STUDENTS and PRACTICING PROFESSIONALS. Over hun-
dred projects have been discussed in this book that give a clear coverage of real world applica-
tions and openness to develop any electronic project that responds to everyday person needs.
Features
• Math level is limited to basic algebra
• Full-color format
• A chapter opener includes a list of chapter objectives and reference
• Numerous schematic circuits with their related circuit connections as they appear in real world
• Circuit connection on PCB and its related circuit artwork to give idea of layout for final projects
iv
Contents

Chapter one
Circuit Designation and Circuit Workplace
1. 1. Circuit Notation and Reference Designators ............................................... 2
1. 2. Circuit design .............................................................................................. 3
1. 3. Circuit Workplace ........................................................................................ 4
1. 3. 1. Breadboard ........................................................................................ 4
1. 3. 2. Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) ............................................................ 6
1. 4. Testing Instruments ...................................................................................... 17
1. 4. 1. Multimeter .......................................................................................... 18
1. 4. 2. Function Generator ............................................................................ 22
1. 4. 3.The Oscilloscope ................................................................................. 23
1. 5. Testing Leads ............................................................................................... 28
Chapter two
DC Circuits and AC Circuits
2. 1. DC current .................................................................................................... 32
2. 1. 1. Types of DC Voltage Sources ............................................................ 32
2. 2. AC Current ................................................................................................... 36
2. 3. Resistors ...................................................................................................... 37
2. 3. 1. Resistor in DC Circuits ...................................................................... 37
2. 3. 2. Resistor in AC Circuits ...................................................................... 60
2. 4. Capacitor ..................................................................................................... 60
2. 4. 1. Capacitor in DC Circuits .................................................................... 63
2. 4. 2. Capacitor in AC Circuits .................................................................... 67
2. 5. The Basic Inductor ....................................................................................... 76
2. 5. 1. Inductor in DC Circuits ...................................................................... 77
2. 5. 2. Inductor in AC Circuits ...................................................................... 79
Chapter three

Passive Filters and Applications
3. 1. RC Circuit as a Filter ................................................................................... 85
3. 1. 1. RC Low-Pass Filter ............................................................................ 85
3. 1. 2. RC High-Pass Filter ........................................................................... 92
3. 2. The RL Circuit as a Filter ............................................................................. 98
3. 2. 1. RL Low-Pass filter ............................................................................. 98
3. 2. 2. RL High-Pass Filter ........................................................................... 103
v
3. 3. Series Resonant Filters ................................................................................. 108
3. 3. 1. The Band-Pass Filter .......................................................................... 108
3. 3. 2. The Band-Stop Filter .......................................................................... 114
3. 4. Parallel Resonant Filters .............................................................................. 119
3. 4. 1. The Band-Pass Filters ........................................................................ 119
3. 4. 2. The Band-Stop Filter .......................................................................... 124
Chapter four

Electromagnetic Devices and Applications
4. 1. The Speaker.................................................................................................. 128
4. 2. The Microphone ........................................................................................... 135
4. 2. 1. Dynamic Microphones ....................................................................... 136
4. 2. 2. Ribbon microphones .......................................................................... 137
4. 2. 3. Condenser Microphone ..................................................................... 139
4. 3. Transformer .................................................................................................. 144
4. 3. 1. Transformer Dot Orientation .............................................................. 150
4. 4. Electrical DC Motors ................................................................................... 165
4. 4. 1. The Basic DC Motor .......................................................................... 166
4. 4. 2. DC Motor Switching and Control ...................................................... 170
4. 4. 3. Reversing the Direction of a DC Motor ............................................. 174
4. 5. The Solenoid ................................................................................................ 178
4. 5. 1. The Linear Solenoid ........................................................................... 179
4. 5. 2. Rotary Solenoid ................................................................................. 182
4. 5. 3. Solenoid Switching ............................................................................ 183
4. 5. 4. Reducing energy consumption ........................................................... 183
4. 6. The Electromechanical Relay ...................................................................... 185
4. 6. 1. Extending the Life of Relay Tips ....................................................... 188
4. 6. 2. Relay Configuration, Installation Tips and Switching ....................... 189

Chapter five

Sensors and Transducers
5. 1. Light Sensors ............................................................................................... 193
5. 1. 1. The Photoconductive Cell .................................................................. 193
5. 2. Photo-junction Devices ................................................................................ 198
5. 2. 1. Photodiode ......................................................................................... 198
5. 2. 2. The Phototransistor ............................................................................ 201
5. 3. Photovoltaic Cells ........................................................................................ 203
5. 4. Temperature Sensor ...................................................................................... 205
5. 4. 1. The Thermostat .................................................................................. 205
5. 4. 2. The Thermistor ................................................................................... 207
5. 4. 3. Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD) ............................................ 214
5. 4. 4. The Thermocouple ............................................................................. 215
5. 5. Position Sensor............................................................................................. 217
5. 6. Light Emitting Diodes .................................................................................. 220
5. 6. 1. Light Emitting Diode Colors ............................................................. 220
vi
5. 6. 2. LED Testing and Anode/Cathode Identification ................................ 221
5. 7. Optocoupler .................................................................................................. 224
5. 8. 7-segment display ........................................................................................ 226
Chapter six

Transistor and Applications
6. 1. Transistor Overview .................................................................................... 233
6. 1. 2. Transistor Biasing .............................................................................. 234
6. 1. 3. Basic Transistor Parameters ............................................................... 234
6. 2. Transistor Replacement ............................................................................... 235
6. 3. Transistor Choice Preference ...................................................................... 236
6. 4. Transistor Part Number Specifications ......................................................... 236
6. 4. 1. JEDEC Numbering System .............................................................. 236
6. 4. 2. Pro-electron Numbering System ........................................................ 237
6. 4. 3. JIS Numbering System ...................................................................... 239
6. 5. Transistor testing and PIN Identification ..................................................... 240
6. 5. 1. Diode Check Function ....................................................................... 240
6. 5. 2. Testing Unknown Transistor ............................................................. 244
6. 5. 3. Testing MOSFETs .............................................................................. 246
6. 6. Most Useful Transistors PIN Configuration ................................................ 249
6. 7. TUN and TUP .............................................................................................. 253
6. 8. Transistor as Switch ..................................................................................... 254
6. 8. 1. Light activated transistor switch ........................................................ 259
6. 8. 2. Transistor as switch with temperature sensor ................................... 263
6. 9. Pulse Generators .......................................................................................... 269
6. 9. 1. Astable Multivibrator ........................................................................ 269
6. 9. 2. Bistable Multivibrator ........................................................................ 272
6. 9. 3. Monostable Multivibrator .................................................................. 275
6. 10. Transistor as Amplifier ............................................................................... 279
6. 10. 1. Common Emitter Amplifier ............................................................. 279
6. 10. 2. Common Collector Amplifier .......................................................... 287
6. 10. 3. Common Base Amplifier.................................................................. 293
Chapter seven

Operational Amplifier Circuits
7. 0. Introduction on Integrated Circuit ............................................................... 302
7. 0. 1. IC Classifications ............................................................................... 302
7. 0. 2. IC Labeling and Manufacture .......................................................... 302
7. 0. 3. Sinking and Sourcing ........................................................................ 304
7. 1. Operational Amplifier .................................................................................. 305
7. 1. 1. Powering up the OP-Amp .................................................................. 305
7. 1. 2. Comparison of OP-Amp Parameters ................................................. 307
7. 1. 3. Using Negative Feedback .................................................................. 308
7. 1. 4. The 741 Operational Amplifier .......................................................... 309
7. 2. Op-Amp Comparator .................................................................................. 309
vii
7. 2. 1. Zero-Level Detection ......................................................................... 309
7. 2. 2. Nonzero-Level Detection ................................................................... 312
7. 2. 3. Comparator With different on and off Voltages (Schmitt Trigger) .... 315
7. 3. Op-Amp Comparator as Switch ................................................................... 318
7. 4. Light Activated Switch ................................................................................ 321
7. 5. Temperature Activated Switch ..................................................................... 333
7. 6. Bargraph Driver ........................................................................................... 334
7. 7. Noninverting Amplifier ................................................................................ 338
7. 8. Inverting Amplifier ....................................................................................... 344
7. 9. Subtractor (differential) Amplifier .............................................................. 348
7. 10. Summing Amplifier .................................................................................... 352
7. 10. 1. Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater Than Unit........................... 353
7. 10. 2. Averaging Amplifier ......................................................................... 353
7. 10. 3. Scaling Adder ................................................................................... 354
7. 10. 4. Waveform Vertical-level Control ..................................................... 359
7. 10. 5. Audio mixer .................................................................................... 361
7. 11. The Op-Amp Integrator .............................................................................. 363
7. 12. The Op-amp Differentiator ........................................................................ 368
7. 13. A Square Wave Relaxation Oscillator ........................................................ 372
7. 14. An Active Clamping Circuit ....................................................................... 376
7. 15. Active Limiting Circuit .............................................................................. 380
7. 16. DC Motor Control ...................................................................................... 384
7. 16. 1. DC Motor Speed Control using PWM ............................................. 384
7. 16. 2. DC Motor Direction Control ............................................................ 387
7. 16. 3. DC Motor Speed and Direction Control .......................................... 389
C h a p t e r e ight
The 555 timer and Application
8. 1. The 555 timer IC overview .......................................................................... 392
8. 2. Monostable 555 Timer ................................................................................. 394
8. 3. Astable 555 Timer ........................................................................................ 399
8. 4. Bistable 555 Timer ....................................................................................... 403
8. 5. Common Circuits with 555 Timer ............................................................... 406
8. 5. 1. 555 Timer as Schmitt Trigger ............................................................ 406
8. 5. 2. Metronome ........................................................................................ 408
8. 5. 3. Missing Pulse Detector ...................................................................... 409
8. 5. 4. Burglar Alarm (dark detector) ............................................................ 410
8. 5. 5. Infrared Beam Barrier for Object Counter ......................................... 412
8. 5. 6. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) with 555 Timer .............................. 413
8. 5. 7. Touch Switch with 555 Timer ............................................................ 415
8. 6. 555 Timer Circuits’ Practical Considerations .............................................. 418

Apandix

Devices Datasheet.................................................................................. 419
viii

1. 1. Circuit Notation and Reference Designators
When developing a circuit diagram, it is necessary to identify the individual components. This is
particularly important when using a parts list as the components on the circuit diagram can be cross
related to the parts list or Bill of Materials. It is also essential to identify components as they are
often marked on the printed circuit board and in this way the circuit and the physical component
can be identified for activities such as repair, etc..
In order to identify components, what is termed a circuit reference designator is used. This cir-
cuit reference designator normally consists of one or two letters followed by a number. The letters
indicate the type of component, and the number, defines which particular component of that type
it is. An example may be R13, or C45, etc..
To standardize the way in which components are identified, the IEEE introduced a standard
IEEE 200-1975 as the "Standard Reference Designations for Electrical and Electronics Parts and
Equipments." This was later withdrawn and later the ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers) initiated the new standard ASME Y14.44-2008.
Some of the more commonly used circuit reference designators are given in table 1-1.
Most commonly used Circuit Reference Designators
Reference Component Type
Designator
ATT Attenuator
BR Bridge rectifier
BT battery
C Capacitor
D Diode
F Fuse
IC Integrated circuit - an alternative widely used non-standard abbreviation
J Connector jack (normally but not always refers to female contact)
L Inductor
LS Loudspeaker
P Plug
PS Power supply
Q Transistor
R Resistor
S Switch
SW Switch - an alternative widely used non-standard abbreviation
T Transformer
TP Test point
TR Transistor - an alternative widely used non-standard abbreviation
U Integrated circuit
VR Variable resistor
2