Spoken discourse markers and English language teaching

387 Pages·2016·2.03 MB·English

Spoken discourse markers and English language teaching: practices and
pedagogies

Christian Jones

Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

August 2011

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Abstract
This thesis reports on a mixed methods classroom research study carried out at a British
university. The study investigates the effectiveness of two different explicit teaching
frameworks, Illustration –Interaction – Induction (III) and Present – Practice – Produce (PPP)
used to teach the same spoken discourse markers (DMs) to two different groups of Chinese
learners at the same level of language competency. It was hypothesised that one explicit
teaching framework would be more effective than the other in terms of short and longer term
acquisition and both would be more effective than no teaching when viewed objectively with
test data and subjectively by the learners themselves.
Thirty six Chinese learners (fourteen male, twenty two female) at the same broad level of
language proficiency were assigned to three groups, experimental group 1 (III), experimental
group 2 (PPP) and group 3 (control). The average age of the learners was twenty two and all
were taking a three week pre-sessional course in academic English. Each experimental group
received ten hours of explicit instruction on the target language. The control group received no
instruction on the target language. The III group were taught using activities which presented
the language in context and encouraged them to notice features of the target language by
sensitising them to differences between spoken and written modes of language and by
comparing the target language with their first language. This group were not given any practice
of the target language in class. The PPP group were taught using activities which presented the
language in context, checked meaning and form and provided them with opportunities to
practise it in class.
The hypothesis was tested through the use of a free response speaking test used as a pre-test, an
immediate post-test and a delayed post-test of eight weeks. The tests were analysed for the
amount of target DMs used and learners were rated for interactive ability, discourse
management and global achievement. In addition, diaries kept by each learner in the
experimental group and focus group interviews were analysed to assess the extent to which this
qualitative data supported or added to the quantitative data.
Raw counts of the target DMs and interactive ability, discourse management and global test
scores indicated that both experimental groups outperformed the control group in the
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immediate post-test in terms of the target DMs used but that this was weaker in the delayed
test. Raw interactive ability, discourse management and global scores weakened in the
immediate post-test but improved in the delayed test, suggesting that the increase in use of
target DMs did not have an impact upon these scores. Univariate analysis of the pre- and post-
tests, using one-way ANOVAs, indicated statistically significant differences between the
experimental PPP group and the control group in terms of a higher mean usage of the target
DMs in the immediate post-test, whilst the III group‘s score did not indicate a statistically
significant difference when compared to the PPP and control groups. The analysis of the
interactive ability, discourse management and global scores did not demonstrate statistically
significant differences between the groups.
The qualitative results were analysed with Computer Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysiS
(CAQDAS) software and supported some of the findings from the test results. This data
demonstrated that both groups felt that instruction on the target language was of value to them
and the PPP group found their method to be generally more useful, which tallied with their
better performances on the tests. The III group showed more evidence of having noticed
aspects of language, such as the difference between the target language and their first language
and how these spoken forms differ from written ones, although both groups displayed some
metalinguistic awareness. Both groups were generally in favour of practice within the
classroom but also expressed some strong doubts about its usefulness and articulated a desire
for a different kind of practice to be used in class, based on rehearsal for real world tasks. This
suggested the need to re-conceptualise practice within III, PPP or other teaching frameworks.

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Acknowledgements
Thanks to the many people who have helped with this thesis. Firstly to Ron Carter for being a
brilliant supervisor – knowledgeable, interested, helpful, supportive and encouraging. Thanks
also to the colleagues who supported, encouraged and helped along the way, in particular
Isabel Donnelly, Nick Gregson, Nicola Halenko, Douglas Hamano-Bunce, Mark Orme,
Valeriy Smolienko, Andrea Taberner, Melinda Tan, Daniel Waller and Feixia Yu. Some of the
findings of this thesis were presented at two IATEFL conferences (Exeter 2008 and Famagusta
2009) and I am grateful for the supportive feedback received from colleagues there. Thanks to
the students for taking part and taking time to write diaries and contribute to discussions about
the process. And of course, thanks to my immediate family, Ritsuko, Sho and Mei for their
patience and support throughout. My wider family have offered support in many ways so
thanks to Mum, Nick, Hazel, Evie, Sam, Jack, Anna, Ian and Barbara.
This thesis is dedicated to my father. Thanks for showing me what it is to have an enquiring
mind and thanks for introducing me to the joys of watching Manchester United. ‗He plays on
the left, he plays on the ri-ight...‘

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Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 4
List of figures ............................................................................................................................ 13
List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................. 14
1 Introduction to the thesis ...................................................................................... 15
1.0 Chapter introduction ................................................................................................ 15
1.1.1 Research objectives ................................................................................................. 15
1.1.2 Research methodology outline ................................................................................ 21
1.1.3 Chapter summary .................................................................................................... 23
2 Literature review ................................................................................................... 24
2.0 Chapter introduction ................................................................................................ 24
2.1 Key terms and definitions ........................................................................................ 24
2.1.1 Spoken grammar, corpus data and spoken discourse markers ................................. 27
2.1.2 Discourse markers: terms and definitions ................................................................ 29
2.1.3 Discourse markers as a feature of textual coherence ............................................... 30
2.1.4 Functional definitions of discourse markers ............................................................ 32
2.1.5 A working definition of discourse markers ............................................................. 33
2.1.6 Summary ................................................................................................................. 35
2.2 The Noticing Hypothesis and the Output Hypothesis: two theories of second
language acquisition ................................................................................................ 35
2.2.1 Comprehensible input and the Input Hypothesis ..................................................... 36
2.2.2 Noticing the input in second language acquisition: definitions of noticing and the
Noticing Hypothesis ................................................................................................ 37
2.2.3 Research evidence and the Noticing Hypothesis ..................................................... 41
2.2.4 The weaknesses of the Noticing Hypothesis ........................................................... 43
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2.2.5 The Output Hypothesis: definitions ......................................................................... 45
2.2.6 Research evidence and the Output Hypothesis ........................................................ 46
2.2.7 Weaknesses of the Output Hypothesis .................................................................... 47
2.2.8 Summary ................................................................................................................. 48
2.3 The influence of noticing and the Output Hypothesis on ELT pedagogy and the
teaching of spoken grammar.................................................................................... 50
2.3.1 Implicit and explicit language teaching ................................................................... 50
2.3.2 Noticing, language awareness and task-based learning ........................................... 53
2.3.3 Noticing and the teaching of spoken grammar ........................................................ 55
2.3.4 Research evidence supporting the use of noticing to teach spoken grammar .......... 55
2.3.5 The influence of the Output Hypothesis on ELT classroom practice ...................... 56
2.3.6 Definitions of practice within CLT.......................................................................... 57
2.3.7 Output and the teaching of spoken grammar ........................................................... 62
2.3.8 Research evidence supporting the use of practice to teach spoken grammar .......... 63
2.3.9 Summary ................................................................................................................. 64
2.4 Chapter summary .................................................................................................... 64
3 Teaching spoken discourse markers: a pilot study ............................................. 66
3.0 Chapter introduction ................................................................................................ 66
3.1 Study design and methodology................................................................................ 66
3.1.1 Participants .............................................................................................................. 68
3.1.2 Aims ........................................................................................................................ 68
3.1.3 Rationale for study design ....................................................................................... 69
3.1.4 Rationale for sample size ......................................................................................... 71
3.1.5 Form focus and pedagogy ....................................................................................... 71
3.1.6 Rationale for form focus and pedagogy................................................................... 75
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3.1.7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 77
3.2. Introduction to quantitative data results .................................................................. 77
3.2.1 Pre-test and post-test achievement scores ................................................................ 78
3.2.2 Analysis of achievement scores ............................................................................... 80
3.2.3 Pre- and post-test use of discourse markers ............................................................. 84
3.2.4 Analysis of quantitative results ................................................................................ 86
3.2.5 Discussion of quantitative results ............................................................................ 87
3.2.6 Summary ................................................................................................................. 88
3.3 Results, analysis and implications of qualitative data 1 .......................................... 88
3.3.1 Results of the diary study ........................................................................................ 88
3.3.2 Discussion of qualitative data 1 ............................................................................... 91
3.3.3 Summary ................................................................................................................. 95
3.4 Results, analysis and implications of qualitative data 2 .......................................... 95
3.4.1 Interview data .......................................................................................................... 95
3.4.2 Discussion of qualitative data 2 ............................................................................... 98
3.4.3 Chapter summary .................................................................................................. 101
4 Methodology......................................................................................................... 103
4.0 Chapter introduction .............................................................................................. 103
4.1 Research questions and hypotheses ....................................................................... 103
4.1.1 Classroom research, methods comparison and form-focused instruction .............. 104
4.1.2 Rationale for the use of classroom research .......................................................... 107
4.1.3 Classroom research and methods comparison: problem and solutions .................. 111
4.2. Study design .......................................................................................................... 112
4.2.1 Rationale for study design ..................................................................................... 114
4.2.2 Participants ............................................................................................................ 116
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4.2.3 Rationale for sample size ....................................................................................... 116
4.2.4 Form focus and pedagogy ..................................................................................... 118
4.2.5 Rationale for form focus and pedagogy................................................................. 120
4.3 Data collection: using tests .................................................................................... 121
4.3.1 Rationale for test type ............................................................................................ 122
4.3.2 Data analysis: analysing tests and measuring statistical significance .................... 127
4.3.3 Rationale for test analysis ...................................................................................... 128
4.4 Data collection: using diaries ................................................................................ 129
4.4.1 Rationale for using diaries ..................................................................................... 130
4.4.2 Data collection: using interviews .......................................................................... 133
4.4.3 Data collection: using focus groups ....................................................................... 134
4.4.4 Rationale for using focus groups ........................................................................... 134
4.4.5 Qualitative data analysis: using CAQDAS software ............................................. 137
4.4.6 Rationale for the use of CAQDAS software .......................................................... 137
4.5 Chapter summary .................................................................................................. 139
5 The main study: quantitative data analysis ....................................................... 141
5.0 Chapter introduction .............................................................................................. 141
5.1 Interactive ability, discourse management, global marks and discourse marker
usage: raw scores and gains ................................................................................... 141
5.1.1 Analysis of raw test data ........................................................................................ 144
5.1.2 Discussion of target discourse marker usage ......................................................... 150
5.1.3 Statistical analysis of test scores ............................................................................ 151
5.1.4 Discussion of test results ....................................................................................... 156
5.2 Chapter summary .................................................................................................. 159
6 The main study: qualitative data analysis ......................................................... 160
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6.0 Chapter introduction .............................................................................................. 160
6.1 Coding of group diaries ......................................................................................... 160
6.1.1 Sample coded diary entries .................................................................................... 161
6.2.2 Diary data analysis: discussion of coded diary entries .......................................... 166
6.2.3 Coded diary data summary .................................................................................... 169
6.3 Diary data analysis: word frequency lists .............................................................. 170
6.3.1 Analysis of frequency counts ................................................................................ 173
6.3.2 Discussion of diary data ........................................................................................ 179
6.3.3 Summary ............................................................................................................... 183
6.4. Focus group data ................................................................................................... 184
6.4.1 Sample coded focus group comments ................................................................... 185
6.4.2 Focus group data analysis: discussion of coded comments ................................... 189
6.4.3 Focus group coded comments summary ................................................................ 193
6.4.4 Focus group data analysis: word frequency lists ................................................... 193
6.4.5 Analysis of frequency counts ................................................................................ 197
6.4.6 Discussion of focus group data .............................................................................. 202
6.5 Chapter summary .................................................................................................. 206
7 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 209
7.0 Chapter introduction .............................................................................................. 209
7.1 Summary of findings ............................................................................................. 209
7.1.1 Implications for methodology ............................................................................... 211
7.1.2 Implications for syllabus content ........................................................................... 215
7.1.3 Limitations of the study ......................................................................................... 216
7.2 Chapter summary .................................................................................................. 219
8 Implications for future research ........................................................................ 220
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8.0 Chapter Introduction .............................................................................................. 220
8.1 Adapting the study ................................................................................................. 220
8.1.1 Adapting the language focus ................................................................................. 222
8.1.2 Changing the study design ..................................................................................... 223
8.2 Final Conclusions and summary ............................................................................ 225
9 Bibliography......................................................................................................... 229
10 Appendices ........................................................................................................... 247
Appendix 1 Overview of main study and pilot study lesson aims .......................................... 247
Appendix 2 Pre-, post- and delayed speaking test prompts .................................................... 248
Appendix 3 Global and skill specific marking scales for B2 speaking test (pilot and main
study) ............................................................................................................................... 260
Appendix 4 Learner diaries: guidance and samples (pilot and main study) ............................ 263
Appendix 5 Guided interview prompts and transcripts (pilot study) ...................................... 288
Appendix 6 Most frequent (51-100) words in learner diaries (main study) ............................ 304
Appendix 7 All keywords from diaries (main study) .............................................................. 306
Appendix 8 Most frequent chunks (1-100) from diaries (main study) .................................... 310
Appendix 9 Transcription conventions and focus group transcripts (main study) .................. 321
Appendix 10 Most frequent (51-100) words used in focus groups (main study) .................... 371
Appendix 11 All keywords from focus groups (main study) .................................................. 373
Appendix 12 Most frequent chunks (1-100) from focus groups (main study) ........................ 376
Appendix 13 Chinese translations of target discourse markers ............................................... 385

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