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SPECIFICITYANDVARIABILITYOFPRACTICE INARAPIDAIMINGTASK By MARTINWAYNESHORT ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDAINPARTIALFULFILLMENT OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITYOFFLORIDA MAY2000 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thisisalittleshout-outtoeveryonewhohelpedsomewayoranotherinbringing thisprojecttofruition.ThankstoJimCauraugh,whokeptme"movingforward"and"on task"withmyprogramanddissertation.ThankstoMilledgeMurphey,JeffBauer,andIra Fischlerforagreeingtobeonmydissertationcommittee.Thisdissertationbenefitedfrom yourthoughtfulcommentsandsuggestions.ToBobSinger,forshowingmeGradSchool isnotallworkandwriting,youhavetogetoutthereandenjoyyourselfsometimestoo. TomentorslikeDanWeeks,andDigElliottfortheirhelpintheinitialstages, MarkFischman,BobEklund,andthefacultyatFlorida.Thankstothosewhowent throughitwithme,SteveRadio,DougBarba,ShaneFrehlich,ChrisJanelle,Chuck Hillman,MarkTillman,BrianFocht,AndiChiumentoandJeffCoombs,forproviding solidexamplesandsharinginsomegreattimes.CheerstoTimJones,Doug"Willie" WilliamsonandeveryoneinvolvedinUFHockey.Thankyouforkeepingmesaneinthe sunnysouthandforthefriendshipsandmemoriesthatwillneverfade. AspecialthankyoutoSandra,mywife,forbeingmysalvationandhelpingme throughthosetoughtimesandmakingthemgreatwithyourconstantcaring, encouragementandzestforlife.Andthankyouforsaying,"Yes",youcompleteme. Thankstomyfamily.MomandDadforalwaysbeingthereandinstillinginme allthepositivequalitiesyoupossessdespitemyfierceindependence.Tamara,for showingmethatnomatterhowdifficultthingscanget,everythingwillturnoutfine,you rocksister. ii TABLEOFCONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS " LISTOFTABLES vi LISTOFFIGURES vii ABSTRACT viii CHAPTERS 1 SPECIFICITYOFLEARNINGHYPOTHESIS . . 1 Introduction . . . . • • • 1 TheSpecificityofLearningeffect Practice 4 DualVisionSystem . 5 PurposeandHypotheses 7 2 REVIEWOFLITERATURE 10 AfferentInformationinManualAiming 10 ModelsofAfferentInformation 10 ClosedtoOpen-LoopControl 12 OtherSourcesofAfferentInformation 15 ImportanceofVisioninManualAiming 15 VisualProcessingTime 15 WhenisVisionMostImportant? 17 DualVisualSystem . 22 KineticVision 23 StaticVision . 26 MethodologicalConsiderations 27 TheSpecificityofLearningHypothesis 31 ResearchontheSpecificityofLearningEffect 31 ExplanationoftheSpecificityofLearningEffect 34 Specific.ityof.Learn.ingi.nOtherTasks 37 FutureDirectionsforSpecificityResearch . 39 Practice 40 LengthandFrequencyofPractice 40 iii ConditionsofPractice . . • --4414 ContextualInterference . . • .48 SchemaFormation . . . • .49 PSruamctmiaceryVaorfiaPbrialcittiyce .. .. .. •• .50 3 VARIABILITY:HOWDOESITEFFECTTHE SPECIFICITYOFLEARNINGHYPOTHESIS? . 52 .52 Introduction . • • .52 TPrhaectSipceeciTfhiecoitryyofLear.ningEf.fect .. .• ..5558 PurposesandHypotheses . . • • Method 59 .59 Participants . . • .59 Apparatus . . • • .62 Procedure . . . • • .64 VisionConditions . . . . .65 Analyses . . • • • -66 Results. . . . . • • .66 Speed-AccuracyTradeoff . . . .67 LearningEffect . . . • .68 SpecificityofLearningEffect . VariabilityEffects 70 .71 Discussion . . . . • • .76 Conclusions . . . . . • 4 VISION:WHATASPECTOFVISIONISRESPONSIBLE FORTHESPECIFICITYOFLEARNINGEFFECT? . 77 .77 IntroducDtuiaolnVi.sionSy.stem .. .. •. •. ..7779 KineticVision. .. . . . .82 SStuamtimcaVriysion . . . . • .83 . . . . . .84 PurposeDiasncdreHpyapnoctiheesseinstheLi.terature. .. . .85 Method 87 .87 PAPCAapornrnpoatdcaliieryctdasiiutpeoarusnnestss ..... ..... ..... ..... .•.. .....9988911792 Results.Speed-A.ccurac.yTrade.off .. .. .. .92 iv .94 LearningEffect . . • • .95 Retention . • SpecificityofLearningEffectandEffectsofKinetic.97 Vision . • • .99 Discussion • • • .99 Speed-AccuracyTrade-Off . . • .100 LearningEffect . . • .101 Retention . . . . • SpecificityofLearningEffectandEffectsofKinetic Vision 101 .104 Conclusions . . . . • • .105 GeneralDiscussion . . . . . REFERENCES 109 APPENDICES A EQUIPMENTSPECIFICATIONS .121 . . B INFORMEDCONSENTAGREEMENT 124 . . C PARTICIPANTINFORMATIONSHEET . .127 D SAMPLEPROGRAMFORDATACOLLECTION 128 . E INSTITUTIONALREVIEWBOARDFORMS . 131 F INSTITUTIONALREVIEWBOARDLETTERS OFAPPROVAL 138 BIOGRAPHICALSKETCH 140 V LISTOFTABLES Table page L ExperimentalConditionSetup . . 65 2. MeanMovementTimeinAcquisitionBlocks . . 66 3. MeanErrorinAcquisitionBlocks . 67 4. MeanMovementTimes . 93 5. MeanError(EarlytoLateAcquisition) . 94 6. MeanError(LateAcquisitiontoRetention) . 96 7. MeanError(LateAcquisitiontoTransfer) . 97 vi LISTOFFIGURES Figure eage 1. Rootmeansquareerrorofaimingonthemainaxisof movement.Thefilledcirclesindicatetheno-vision conditionswhiletheopensquaresandopencirclesindicate visionofthestylusandnormalvisionrespectively . . 34 2. Meantotaltimemeasuresinacquisitionforblocked andrandomgroupsandretentionconditions . . .42 3. Diagramofgraphicstabletandcomputermonitor . . 60 4. Diagramofgraphicstabletmouseandthemannerinwhich subjectsheldthemouseduringtheaimingmovements . 61 5. RadialerrorbyblockfortheNon-Visiontransfer . . 69 6. RadialerrorbyblockfortheVisiontransfer . . .70 7. Meanradialerrorforstaticandkinetic+staticvision . . 98 vii AbstractofDissertationPresentedtotheGraduateSchool oftheUniversityofFloridainPartialFulfillmentof therequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy SPECIFICITYANDVARIABILITYOFPRACTICE INARAPIDAIMINGTASK By MartinWayneShort May2000 Chairman:JamesH.Cauraugh MajorDepartment:ExerciseandSportSciences Thenatureofpracticehaslongbeenstudieddueprimarilytoits significanceinlearningandperformance.Thespecificityoflearningeffectis whenwithdrawingoraddingasignificantamountofafferentinformationaftera periodofpracticeresultsinadeteriorationofperformance.Althoughresearchhas toldushowmuchspecificityisneededtoelicittheeffect,littleresearchhasbeen doneonthelimitsorcausesofthiseffect.Thepurposeofthefirstexperimentwas todeterminehowmuchvariabilityisnecessarytocompensateforthepoor performancecausedbythespecificityoflearningeffect.Volunteers(N=60)fi-om theUniversityofNorthDakotawereplacedingroupswithvariouspercentagesof 200acquisitiontrialsbeingwithorwithoutvisionofacursorduringanaiming task.ASummaSketchgraphicstablet,computer,andmanual-aimingprogram viu wereusedwithvisionandnon-visiongroupsperforming200acquisitiontrials anda20trialtransfertask.A4(Condition)X11(Block)ANOVAwithrepeated measuresonthelastfactorrevealedseveralfindings.Movementtimeremained constantduringtheexperiment,andalearningeffectwasdemonstratedas expected.Thespecificityoflearningeffectwasreplicated;25%(andonly12.5% inonecase)variabilitywassufficienttoovercomethenegativeeffectson performancecausedbythespecificityoflearningeffectinboththevisionand non-visiontransfergroups.Thesecondexperimentfocusedondetermining dynamicvision's(visionofmovement)roleinthespecificityoflearningeffect. Volunteers(N=40)wereplacedingroupsperforming200or40trialsofan aimingtaskwithorwithoutthebenefitofkineficvision(visionofthecursoror thehandandarm).ACondition(4)XBlock(11)ANOVAwithrepeated measuresshowedbothalearningeffectaswellasthespecificityoflearning effect.Also,kineticvisionhadapowerfulinfluenceonperformanceandthe specificityoflearningeffect. ix CHAPTER 1 THESPECIFICITYOFLEARNINGHYPOTHESIS Introduction TheSpecificityofLearningEffect Thenatureofpracticehaslongbeenstudieddueprimarilytoits significanceinlearningandperformance.Recently,arenewedinterestinthe notionofspecificityoflearninghasbeenevidentintheliterature.Thesestudies haveresultedintheextensionoftheoriginalideaofspecificityoflearning,that performanceononetaskisnotusefulforpredictingperformanceonothertasks (Henry,1968),tothemorecomprehensiveideathatlearningandsubsequent performancearespecifictotheconditionsinwhichpracticeoccurs(e.g.,Proteau, Marteniuk,&Levesque,1992).Whenpeoplepracticewithaspecificsetof afferentinformation(i.e.,informationcomingfromoneofthesensessuchas sight,sound,ortouch),thereisadistinctspecificityoflearningeffect(Adams, Gopher,&Lintem,1977;Proteau,Marteniuk,Girouard,&Dugas,1987).Adams etal.(1977),usingvisualafferencetodemonstratethespecificityeffect,proposed thatvisualinformationbecomesevenmoreimportantinmotorcontrolafter extensivepractice.Proteauetal.(1987)foundthattheadditionofvisual informationregardinganongoingmovementcausedasignificanterrorincrease forparticipantswhohadpracticedwithoutitandviceversa.Proteauand Coumoyer(1990)addedtoknowledgeonthespecificityeffectbyproposingthat 1

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