Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume 2: Cryogenics (Aerospace Press)

636 Pages·2003·33.2 MB·English

by  Martin Donabedian

Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook
Volume :1I Cryogenics
Martin Donabedian
Editor
The Aerospace Press • 1E Segundo, California
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. ° Reston, Virginia
The Aerospace Press
2350 E. 1E Segundo Boulevard
1E Segundo, California 90245-4691
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191-4344
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spacecraft thermal control handbook / edited by David G. Gilmore.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-884989-14-4 .v( 2)
.1 Space vehicles--Thermodynamics. .2 Space vehicles--Cooling. I.
Gilmore, David G.
TL900 .$595 2002
629.47'4--dc21 2002013535
Copyright © 2003 by The Aerospace Corporation
All fights reserved
Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced, distributed, or transmitted in any form orb y any means, or stored in a data-
base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publishers.
Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only.
The publishers and the authors are not responsible for any injury or damage result-
ing from use or reliance, nor do the publishers or the authors warrant that use or
reliance will be free from privately owned fights.
The material in this book was reviewed by the Air Force Space and Missile Sys-
tems Center and NASA, and approved for public release.
Preface
The number of satellite systems that require some form of cryogenic cooling has
grown enormously during the last 01 years. The first edition of this handbook,
published in 1994, contained one chapter on cryogenic systems; that chapter
included about 38 pages. As of this writing, in 2002, the last survey made by The
Aerospace Corporation on cryocoolers included nearly 200 pages. With so many
engineers, scientists, and technicians working on cryogenic systems for the first
time in their careers, the need for a single resource that touched on all the technol-
ogies relevant to cryogenics was apparent. When The Aerospace Press decided to
revise the Handbook and expand the cryogenics section, it quickly became clear
that only an entire separate book could adequately cover the subject.
Thus, Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume II: Cryogenics was con-
ceived. The purpose of the book is to provide useful information to novices as well
as to experienced engineers, scientists, and techniciansmto help all of them in the
design, analysis, integration, testing, and operation of a variety of instruments, sen-
sors, and other devices that must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures. To properly
address the necessary topics, industry experts were asked to write or contribute to
chapters coveting their expertise. The following brief descriptions of the chapters
and their contents convey the impressive scope of the material in this volume.
The book begins with an overview of the types of cryogenic cooling systems
(Chapter .)1 Following this introduction, Part 1 (Chapters 2 through 4) covers
stored expendable systems; it includes chapters on liquid and solid stored cryo-
gens and open-cycle ("blow-down") Joule-Thomson systems, and it includes the
principles of operation, fluid properties, and illustrations of historic operating sys-
tems. The subject of radiant coolers is covered in Part 2 (Chapters 5 and 6). Chap-
ter 5 discusses radiator principles and heat balance and goes through the design
process, while Chapter 6 summarizes radiant cooler development, reviews histori-
cal system characteristics, and provides a simple method to estimate cold patch
size and overall cooler dimensions.
Recently, there has been an explosion of applications requiring long-life
mechanical refrigerators ("cryocoolers") in fields such as astronomy, Earth obser-
vation, weather satellites, missile defense, infrared surveillance, and superconduc-
tivity. More than three dozen organizations worldwide are involved in the develop-
ment of cryocoolers. As a result, the largest portion of the book, Part 3 (Chapters 7
through 13), has been devoted to this subject.
Chapter 7 provides a brief review of refrigeration thermodynamic cycles, identi-
fies practical cycles for spacecraft application, gives overviews of the field of
available coolers and the development process, and briefly summarizes the flight
history. The subject of regenerative coolers (Stifling and pulse tube), including
their cycles, operating principles, design implementation, performance, and illus-
trations of current devices (including flight electronics) is discussed in Chapter .8
A detailed discussion of reverse turbo-Brayton cycles, systems, attributes, compo-
nent development, and performance is provided in Chapter 9. Hybrid systems,
which combine Stirling and JT systems, as well as closed-cycle JT systems using
ix
Preface
mechanical compressors or sorption cycle compression, are covered in
Chapter .01
A key issue in successfully using cryocoolers is obtaining data on their perfor-
mance with respect to a wide range of parameters including refrigeration perfor-
mance, distribution of waste heat, off-state conduction, launch vibration response,
cooler-generated vibration, and electromagnetic fields and emissions. These sub-
jects are covered in detail in Chapter .11 One of the most difficult issues is the
problem of quantifying the reliability or probability of failure of a single unit or
the overall reliability of a system with more than one unit. Some approaches to
solving these problems are covered in Chapter .21 Successful integration of a
cooler into a spacecraft system includes more than load estimation and cryocooler
sizing. Heatsinking, structural mounting provisions, operational issues, and elec-
trical integration issues are also of great importance. Examples of real integration
problems are reviewed in Chapter .31
Overall integration of cryogenic components into a system and ultimate integra-
tion of the system into the spacecraft usually creates the major challenges and
generates the most problems for any program. This entire subject is covered in
Part 4, which comprises Chapters 41 through .81 Chapter 41 covers flexible con-
duction links, while Chapter 51 provides details on the use of thermal switches,
which may be used to accommodate redundant cryocoolers and minimize off-state
conduction heat loads. Two-phase capillary heat transport devices are discussed in
Chapter ,61 and the analysis, design, and integration of thermal storage devices
used to orbit-average cyclical heat loads are presented in Chapter .71 Overall
spacecraft integration issues are summarized in Chapter .81
Cryogenic systems have historically been less reliable than conventional ther-
mal control systems, making reliability a topic that requires special treatment.
Part 5 (Chapter )91 is dedicated to thermal margins, margin application to cryo-
genic systems, estimation of risk, and lessons learned from previous cryogenic
systems.
The critical nature of the performance of cryogenic systems requires concurrent
modeling, analysis, and design, followed by test verification, as illustrated in
Part 6. A methodology for conducting preliminary analysis prior to building
detailed mathematical models later in the program is provided in Chapter 20 using
an infrared sensor as an example. This chapter outlines the analysis process.
Chapter 12 presents the critical issues that are addressed during the endurance
testing of cryocoolers.
Part 7, the last part, provides information about thermophysical properties and
emittances of selected materials. Reliable and accurate material property data at
cryogenic temperatures are difficult to obtain and are critical to system design, and
thus Chapter 22 provides a list of key sources of data for thermophysical properties
and specific properties for selected materials at cryogenic temperatures. Chapter
23 includes a compilation of emittances of selected materials, films, and coatings.
Martin Donabedian
xii
Foreword
The Aerospace Press is very proud to publish Spacecraft Thermal Control Hand-
book, Volume II: Cryogenics, edited by Martin Donabedian. This is a scholarly
work with broad appeal, one that can be appreciated by students new to the field as
well as highly experienced specialists. Without exception, these essays are valu-
able additions to the literature of cryogenics for space applications.
Martin was a terrific colleague and an all-around great guy. Unfortunately, he
died not long after he completed assembling the manuscript of this book. We are
indeed fortunate that he was able to leave as his legacy such an impressive work.
Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume II: Cryogenics is a fitting com-
plement to the first volume in this series. Like that volume, it should prove quite
useful to scientists, engineers, and anyone else with a need to learn the discipline
of spacecraft thermal control. It is sure to rapidly become the industry standard
reference in the increasingly important field of spacecraft cryogenics.
David Gilmore
Series Editor
xiii
Contributing Authors
N. Abhyankar, Air Albuquerque, Research Force Laboratory, weN Mexico
Chapter ,12 Cryocooler Endurance Testing
R. C. Bowman Jr., Jet California Institute Propulsion Laboratory, of ,ygolonhceT
Pasadena, California
Chapter ,01 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers
D. Bugby, Swales Aerospace, Beltsville, Maryland
Chapter ,41 Flexible Links Conductive
Chapter ,51 Cryogenic Thermal Switches
Chapter ,61 Cryogenic Devices Transport Heat
Chapter ,71 Cryogenic Thermal Units Storage
Chapter ,81 Cryogenic Integration System Devices
.W Burr, Northrop Grumman Space Redondo Technology, Beach, California
Chapter ,8 Systems: Regenerative Stifling Pulse and Tube Cryocoolers
L. Crawford, ITT Industries, WaynFeo,r t Indiana
Chapter ,5 Radiant Coolers
.T .M Davis, Air Albuquerque, Research Force Laboratory, weN Mexico
Chapter ,12 Cryocooler Endurance Testing
.M Donabedian, Aerospace Corporation, The 1E California Segundo,
Chapter ,1 Cryogenic Systems Overview
Chapter ,2 Cryogenic Fluid Storage
Chapter ,3 Stored Cryogen Solid Systems
Chapter ,6 Cryogenic Radiator Designs Comparative Performance and
Chapter ,7 Cryocooler Overview
Chapter ,91 Thermal Control Margins, Risk Estimation, Lessons and Learned
Chapter ,22 Thermophysical Properties of Materials Selected
Chapter ,32 Emittance of Selected Materials Temperatures Cryogenic at
D. Glaister, Aerospace, Ball Boulder, Colorado
Chapter ,02 Cryogenic Analysis Systems
B. Kiehl, Aerospace, Ball Boulder, Colorado
Chapter ,01 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers
R. C. Longsworth, formerly of DPA Cryogenics, Allentown, Pennsylvania
Chapter ,4 Open-Cycle Joule-Thomson Coolers
.B Marland, Swales Aerospace, Beltsville, Maryland
Chapter ,41 Flexible Links Conductive
Chapter ,51 Cryogenic Thermal Switches
Chapter ,61 Cryogenic Devices Transport Heat
Chapter ,71 Cryogenic Thermal Units Storage
Chapter ,81 Cryogenic Integration System Devices
E. Marquardt, Aerospace, Ball Boulder, Colorado
Chapter ,01 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers
V'X
Contributing Authors
G. Mills, Ball Aerospace, Boulder, Colorado
Chapter ,02 Cryogenic Systems Analysis
R. G. Ross Jr., Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of ,ygolonhceT
Pasadena, California
Chapter ,11 Cryocooler Performance Characterization
Chapter ,21 Cryocooler Reliability and Redundancy Considerations
Chapter ,31 Cryocooler Integration Considerations
.W L. Swift, Creare Incorporated, Hanover, New Hampshire
Chapter ,9 Turbo-Brayton Cryocoolers
ivx
Contents
Preface ........................................................ xi
Foreword ..................................................... xiii
Contributing Authors ........................................... xv
1 Cryogenic Systems Overview ...................................... 1
Stored-Cryogen Cooling Systems ................................... 2
Cryogenic Radiators ............................................. 5
Cryogenic Refrigerators (Cryocoolers) .............................. 6
traP Cooling Systems Expendable Stored 1
2 Cryogenic Fluid Storage ........................................ 13
Introduction ................................................... 13
Operating Temperatures and Thermodynamics Fundamentals ........... 13
Fluid Storage Methods and Applications ............................ 19
References .................................................... 28
3 Stored Solid Cryogen Systems .................................... 31
Operating Principles ............................................ 31
Temperature Ranges of Use ...................................... 31
Solid Cooler Characteristics and Design Concepts .................... 32
Flight Systems ................................................. 34
4 Open-Cycle Joule-Thomson Coolers ............................... 41
Principles of Operation .......................................... 41
Gas Properties ................................................. 45
Heat Exchanger Design and Performance ............................ 47
Reservoirs .................................................... 47
Other Considerations ........................................... 50
References .................................................... 51
Part 2 Cryogenic Radiators and Radiant Coolers
5 Radiant Coolers ............................................... 55
Radiant Cooler Thermal Balance .................................. 57
Orbital Considerations .......................................... 60
Preliminary Radiant Cooler Design and Analysis ..................... 62
Contamination Control Guidelines ................................. 77
Radiant Cooler Sizing Guidelines .................................. 82
Design Example: Three-Stage Radiant Cooler, Geosynchronous Orbit ..... 83
Contents
Design Example: Two-Stage Radiant Cooler, Low Earth Orbit .......... 87
References ................................................... 90
6 Cryogenic Radiator Designs and Comparative Performance .......... 91
Flight Systems ................................................ 91
Thermodynamic Characterization of Radiant Coolers ................ 103
Acronyms .................................................. 115
References .................................................. 116
Part 3 Cryocoolers (Mechanical Refrigerators)
7 Cryocooler Overview ......................................... 121
Principles of Thermodynamics and Ideal Cycles .................... 121
Flight History ............................................... 124
Candidate Cryocoolers with Near-Term Availability ................. 124
Acronyms .................................................. 129
References .................................................. 130
8 Regenerative Systems: Stirling and Pulse Tube Cryocoolers ......... 135
Stirling Coolers .............................................. 135
Pulse Tube Coolers ........................................... 154
Regenerative Cooler Electronic Control Systems .................... 163
Regenerative Cooler Failure Mechanisms ......................... 169
Regenerative Cooler Selection Criteria ............................ 170
Regenerative Cooler Electromagnetic Interference .................. 171
Thermomechanical Considerations ............................... 172
References .................................................. 172
9 Turbo-Brayton Cryocoolers .................................... 175
The Thermodynamic Cycle ..................................... 175
Components ................................................. 178
Development Status ........................................... 182
References .................................................. 185
10 Closed-Cycle Joule-Thomson Cryocoolers ....................... 187
Basic Thermodynamics ........................................ 188
Joule-Thomson Cryocooler Configurations ........................ 189
Joule-Thomson Cryocooler Components .......................... 191
System Descriptions .......................................... 202
Conclusions ................................................. 213
Acknowledgment ............................................. 213
References .................................................. 213
vi
stnetnoC
11 Cryocooler Performance Characterization ...................... 217
Introduction ................................................. 217
Cryocooler Refrigeration Performance ............................ 217
Spatial Distribution of Rejected Heat ............................. 226
Coldfinger Off-State Conduction ................................ 229
Drive Resonance Characteristics ................................. 232
Piston Launch-Vibration Response ............................... 238
Cooler Drive Stiction .......................................... 242
Cooler-Generated Vibration .................................... 245
Electromagnetic Fields and Conducted Emissions ................... 250
References .................................................. 260
12 Cryocooler Reliability and Redundancy Considerations ........... 263
Introduction ................................................. 263
Life Test and Flight Operational Data ............................. 263
Subassembly Reliability Prediction ............................... 265
System-Level Reliability Analysis and Prediction ................... 273
Summary and Conclusions ..................................... 281
References .................................................. 283
13 Cryocooler Integration Considerations .......................... 285
Introduction ................................................. 285
Cryogenic Load Estimation and Cryocooler Sizing .................. 285
Cryocooler Heatsinking Considerations ........................... 299
Cold Load Integration Considerations ............................ 303
Cryocooler Structural Mounting Issues ............................ 313
Operational and Electrical Integration Issues ....................... 318
References .................................................. 323
Part 4 Cryogenic Components, Transport, Storage, and Integration
14 Flexible Conductive Links .................................... 327
Design Considerations ......................................... 327
Thermal Analysis Fundamentals ................................. 337
Mechanical Analysis Fundamentals .............................. 338
Manufacturing Techniques ..................................... 340
Thermal Testing ............................................. 342
Mechanical Testing ........................................... 343
Existing Designs ............................................. 343
References .................................................. 346
15 Cryogenic Thermal Switches .................................. 347
Design Considerations ......................................... 347
Thermal Analysis Fundamentals ................................. 358
vii