Table Of ContentThomas F. Mütsch, Matthias B. Kowalski
Space Technology
De Gruyter Graduate
Thomas F. Mütsch, Matthias B. Kowalski
Space Technology
A Compendium for Space Engineering
Authors
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas F. Mütsch
[email protected]
Dr. Matthias B. Kowalski
[email protected]
ISBN 978-3-11-041321-2
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-041322-9
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-042621-2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress.
Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
© 2016 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Cover image: 3DSculptor/iStock/thinkstock
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck
♾ Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Germany
www.degruyter.com
Preface
This textbook is a compendium for further education of students and jobholders in
aerospace industry. For all other people who are interested in astronomy and
astronautics this book should be also helpful for knowledge transfer. However, this
book requires knowledge in higher mathematics and physics. Many of mathematical
equations required are summarised in the appendix. On the derivation of analytical
relations is generally waived. A realistic and practically oriented application is
favoured. For private study and further learning a collection of questions is attached
at the end of each chapter. An extensive collection of equations is given in the
appendix.
The theoretical foundations of space flight had been developed in the last
20th century. The most important documents of this time are referenced in the text.
Also important milestones in the practical implementation for the use in launcher
systems and payloads to some current major projects on the further development of
space flight are described. The book also covers the fundamentals of aerospace
engineering. It explains the details of technical implementations organised in the
border area of technical feasibility. Moreover, it explains the constraints of space
flight and describes the key elements of rocket motors and power supply in more
detail. The accessibility of celestial bodies is tabulated and documented in the
outlook chapter, in which the largest vision of space flight, humans to Mars, is
explained.
Space flight requires high precision, high development expenses, and therefore,
high costs. Just a few countries are willing and able to afford the economic costs
involved. Although it is 60 years since the first satellite was carried into space,
annually less than 100 space missions are launched. This textbook is intended as a
small contribution to the development and peaceful use of space flight.
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas F. Mütsch
Boxberg, Germany
Dr. rer. nat. Matthias B. Kowalski
Weimar, Germany
VI | Preface
Cover illustration
The colour illustration on the cover shows NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS). The
preliminary design of the SLS was completed in 2013 and moved into production of
the launch vehicle.
The SLS is an advanced launch vehicle for explorations beyond Earth’s orbit
into deep space. The world’s most powerful rocket will launch astronauts in the new
Orion spacecraft on missions to asteroids and eventually to planet Mars. Offering
the highest-ever payload mass, this launcher also opens new possibilities for robotic
scientific missions to planets like Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter.
The lift capability of the SLS enables the launch of larger payloads than any
other commercial launcher systems. The high performance reduces the time for the
travel of robotic spacecrafts through the Solar System, and by reducing the costs
and risks the SLS provides larger volumes due to larger payload fairings, to fly on
science missions that are too large for other commercial launchers. There will be
several versions of the rocket to fit NASA’s needs for future deep space missions
beginning with a 70 t lift capability to one of a 130 t lift capability.
Contents
1 Historical Background | 1
1.1 Consolidation of Space Flight | 3
1.2 Questions for Further Studies | 4
2 Basic Principles | 5
2.1 Solar System | 5
2.2 Atmosphere of the Earth | 6
2.3 Distances and velocities | 7
2.3.1 Linear Velocity | 8
2.3.2 Angular velocity | 8
2.4 Laws of Conservation of Energy and Momentum | 9
2.5 Theoretical Basics of Orbit Mechanics | 12
2.5.1 Ballistic Trajectories | 16
2.5.2 Circular Orbits | 18
2.5.3 Elliptical Orbit | 25
2.5.4 Parabolic Trajectories | 29
2.5.5 Hyperbolic Trajectories | 31
2.5.6 Trajectory Changes | 33
2.5.7 Atmospheric Braking Manoeuvre | 39
2.5.8 Multiple-body Problems | 40
2.6 Attitude Control and Stabilisation | 46
2.6.1 Three-Axis Stabilisation | 48
2.6.2 Spin Stabilisation | 48
2.6.3 Gravitational Gradient Stabilisation | 49
2.6.4 Magnetic Stabilisation | 51
2.7 Questions for Further Studies | 52
3 Propulsion Systems | 53
3.1 Rocket Equation | 54
3.2 Air-Breathing Propulsion Systems | 55
3.3 Chemical Propulsion Systems | 56
3.3.1 Solid Propulsion Systems | 60
3.3.2 Liquid Propulsion Systems | 61
3.3.3 Hybrid Propulsion Systems | 67
3.3.4 Tribrid Propulsion Systems | 67
3.4 Physical Propulsion Systems | 68
3.4.1 Cold Gas Propulsion Systems | 68
3.4.2 Electric Propulsion Systems | 69
3.4.3 Thermonuclear Propulsion Systems | 76
VIII | Contents
3.4.4 Photon Propulsion Systems | 78
3.5 Questions for Further Studies | 80
4 Missions | 81
4.1 Velocity demand | 82
4.2 Questions for Further Studies | 86
5 Energy Sources | 87
5.1 Batteries | 89
5.2 Fuel Cells | 89
5.3 Solar Cells | 95
5.4 Thermonuclear Energy Sources | 96
5.5 Thermoelectric Modules | 97
5.6 Questions for Further Studies | 98
6 Energy Storages | 99
6.1 Mechanical Flywheels | 99
6.2 Electrochemical Storages | 99
6.3 Chemical Propellants | 100
6.4 Questions for Further Studies | 100
7 Materials and Lubricants | 101
7.1 Mechanical properties | 101
7.2 Lubrication properties | 103
7.3 Materials Used in Space | 103
7.4 Commodity Prices | 104
7.5 Questions for Further Studies | 104
8 Processes | 105
8.1 Manufacturing processes | 106
8.2 Verification Processes | 109
8.3 Testing Processes | 110
8.4 Test philosophy | 111
8.5 Questions for Further Studies | 112
9 Products | 113
9.1 Launch Vehicles | 114
9.1.1 Saturn V | 114
9.1.2 Ariane 5 launch vehicle | 117
9.1.3 Ariane 6 Launch Vehicle | 119
9.1.4 Space Transportation System | 122
9.1.5 Space Launch System | 127
Contents | IX
9.1.6 Other launcher systems | 131
9.2 Satellites and Probes | 132
9.2.1 Hubble Space Telescope | 132
9.2.2 Cassini Space Probe | 135
9.2.3 Apollo Modules | 136
9.3 Chemical Propulsion Systems | 139
9.4 Re-entry Bodies | 140
9.5 Single-Stage-To-Orbit vehicles | 142
9.6 Fully re-usable Vehicles | 143
9.7 Re-entry Vehicles | 144
9.8 Expendable 1st / 2nd Stage Vehicles | 144
9.9 Questions for Further Studies | 148
10 Projects and Payloads | 149
10.1 Commercial Projects | 151
10.2 Scientific Projects | 152
10.3 Military Projects | 153
10.4 Questions for Further Studies | 156
11 Launch Sites | 157
11.1 Baikonur Spaceport | 158
11.2 Kennedy Space Center | 160
11.3 Guiana Space Centre | 161
11.4 Questions for Further Studies | 162
12 Environmental and Boundary Conditions | 163
12.1 Environmental Conditions | 163
12.2 Boundary Conditions | 165
12.3 Visibility of Satellites | 168
12.4 Questions for Further Studies | 170
13 Conclusions and Outlook | 171
13.1 Commercialisation of Aerospace Industry | 172
13.2 Scenario for Manned Space Flight to Mars | 173
13.3 Fundamentals of a Manned Mission to Mars | 173
13.4 Possible Trajectories to Mars | 174
13.5 Landing on Mars | 179
13.6 Plannings and Projects | 179
13.6.1 ExoMars Programme | 180
13.6.2 Mars Sample Return Mission | 183
13.7 Estimating Masses and Costs | 184
13.8 Conclusions | 187
X | Contents
13.9 Questions for Further Studies | 188
14 Appendix | 189
14.1 Acronyms and Abbreviations | 189
14.2 Prefixes and Quantities | 196
14.3 Formulary of Classical Orbital Mechanics | 198
14.4 Formulary of Rocket Flights | 204
14.5 Websites | 205
14.6 Credits for Illustrations | 207
Further Reading | 209
Index | 211
1 Historical Background
The earliest thoughts of flights into space date already back to the beginning of the
discovery of black powder by ancient Chinese pyrotechnicians. In the following
centuries to early modern times most of the desires for takeoff and heading for the
Moon were written down in works of fiction. However, the early physicists,
mathematicians, and astronomers created the fundamentals for our conception of
the world. Thus, they laid the cornerstones for successful space flight. From the
fundamentals of rocket construction in the nineteenth century to modern aerospace
transportation, important milestones of space flight were set by unique people.
Most important people of space flight
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovski (1857 – 1935)
1898: Fundamentals of rocket construction, rocket equation.
Hermann Oberth1 (1894 – 1989)
Nineteen-twenties: Fundamentals of space technology.
Walter Hohmann2 (1880 – 1945)
Nineteen-twenties: Calculation of satellite orbits.
Robert Hutchinson Goddard (1882 – 1945)
16 March 1926: Launch of the first liquid propellant rocket (petrol and oxygen).
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev (1906 – 1966)
1933: Development of jet engines for liquid propellant rockets.
Head of the Soviet space programme.
Wernher von Braun (1912 – 1977)
3 October 1942: First launcher/combat bomb of the world (A-4/V-2).
Until 1945: Director of the Army Rocket Centre at Peenemünde, Germany.
Nineteen-sixties: Director of the U.S. Lunar Landing Mission (Saturn V, Apollo).
Most important events of space flight
4 October 1957: First satellite in space (Sputnik, Soviet Union).
12 April 1961: First man in space (Jurij Gagarin, Major, 1934 – 1968).
20 July 1969: First man on the Moon (Armstrong/Aldrin, USA).
24 December 1979: First launch of Ariane rocket from Kourou, French Guiana.
12 April 1981: First reusable space shuttle (Space Shuttle, USA).
28 January 1986: First shuttle crash (Challenger, USA. Seven crew members died).
1 February 2003: Second shuttle crash (Columbia, USA. Seven crew members died).
21 July 2011: Last shuttle landing, 135 flights in total.
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1 Oberth H. Wege zur Raumschiffahrt. Verlag von R. Oldenbourg, München and Berlin, 1929.
2 Hohmann W. Die Erreichbarkeit der Himmelskörper. Oldenbourg Verlag, München, 1925.
