Table Of ContentSPACE SCIENCE
Edited by Herman J. Mosquera Cuesta
Space Science
Edited by Herman J. Mosquera Cuesta
Published by InTech
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Copyright © 2012 InTech
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First published March, 2012
Printed in Croatia
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Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected]
Space Science, Edited by Herman J. Mosquera Cuesta
p. cm.
ISBN 978-953-51-0423-0
Contents
Preface IX
Part 1 Space Exploration 1
Chapter 1 How Newcomers Will
Participate in Space Exploration 3
Ugur Murat Leloglu and
Barış Gençay
Part 2 Evolution of the Earth 25
Chapter 2 Geomagnetically Induced Currents
as Ground Effects of Space Weather 27
Risto Pirjola
Chapter 3 Why Isn't the Earth
Completely Covered in Water? 45
Joseph A. Nuth III, Frans J. M. Rietmeijer and
Cassandra L. Marnocha
Part 3 Planetary Science 57
Chapter 4 OrbFit Impact Solutions for Asteroids (99942)
Apophis and (144898) 2004 VD17 59
Wlodarczyk Ireneusz
Chapter 5 Enigma of the Birth and
Evolution of Solar Systems May Be Solved
by Invoking Planetary-Satellite Dynamics 73
Bijay Sharma
Chapter 6 Secular Evolution of
Satellites by Tidal Effect 103
Alexandre C. M. Correia
VI Contents
Part 4 Cosmology and CMB Physics 113
Chapter 7 Systematics in WMAP and
Other CMB Missions 115
Hao Liu and Ti-Pei Li
Chapter 8 Nonlinear Electrodynamics Effects on the Cosmic
Microwave Background: Circular Polarization 135
Herman J. Mosquera Cuesta and Gaetano Lambiase
Preface
Inquiring on the sky (i.e., the Universe) has been present as affair of concern of the
human kind since the early days of the first hominids like homo floresiensis and late
homo sapiens. Fascination of sky watchers on a starry night, with its planets and the
Moon, still today invites the best human minds to struggle for unveiling its secrets.
To extending farther out the reach of our eyes, the telescope was introduced to
astronomy in 1609 by Galileo Galilei. Since then, technological advances in many
branches of physics and astronomy have driven the mankind to more and more
astonishing discoveries in the Universe. Such findings were stimulated by a
vigorous research enterprise in many areas of the modern technological era, which
extends from development of technologies for building spacecrafts, spaceships and
for space travel (including space medicine), to modern methods for scrutinizing the
Universe in all the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, and beyond via
gravitational wave observatories. Thus, the all-encompassing term Space Science was
coined to describe all of the various fields of research in science (originally, such
fields were considered part of astronomy) that are concerned with the study of the
Universe, and generally means either excluding the Earth or outside of the Earth's
atmosphere. This special volume on Space Science was prepared upon a scientifically
rigorous selection process of each of the contributed chapters making up of it. Its
structure drives the reader into a fascinating journey starting from the surface of our
planet to reach a boundary where something lurks at the edge of the observable,
light-emitting Universe, presenting four Sections running over a timely review on
the most recent developments in space exploration and the role being played by
newcomer nations, an overview on the early evolution of our planet during its long
ancient ice age, a reanalysis of some aspects of satellites and planetary dynamics, to
end up with intriguing discussions on recent advances in physics of cosmic
microwave background radiation and cosmology.
Section I presents an update on the state-of-the-art on space exploration. This term
stands for all activities leading to study the Earth outer space by using either space
technology or observations from the surface or from our close circumplanetary
environment. With the advances in space technology our knowledge on the outer
space has been increasing with an accelerating pace. The mankind succeeded to send
satellites, landers, rovers and even manned spacecrafts to the Moon. The chapter
X Preface
recalls that the activities of nations involved in the exploration and use of the outer
space is governed by the Outer Space Treaty, which defines basic principles for using
the outer space. Despite the Treaty states that “The exploration and use of outer
space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all States”, until
recent years space exploration was a privilege of a few countries (United States,
Japan, Europe and Russian Federation), which managed to develop the technologies
necessary to adventure far out of our planet. This chapter discusses extensively a
very innovative and recently introduced concept in this field: the democratization of
the space. Countries wanting to use the space for the good of their citizens and to
boost their development stepped into the space technology arena. In the late years
China and India made great achievements. As of today, these countries managed to
put their own launch vehicles on serial production and even reached lunar orbit.
Meanwhile, late industrialized nations like Brazil, South Africa, Turkey, Thailand,
Malaysia and some other countries had their first steps mostly through relatively
low-cost small satellite technology transfer programs based on technological
partnerships with the countries strong in technology for navigation through the
solar system. The chapter ends up by listing the set of technological requirements
that countries newcomers into outer space research needs to accomplish, and
stresses the large investments (man-power and financial) that are expected in order
to succeed in such adventure out there.
Section II focuses on the evolution of our planet. It offers a couple of articles. One
discusses the effects on the ground due to geomagnetically induced currents, and the
other addressing why our planet is not fully covered by water, despite it passed
through an extremely long ice era during its early evolution as a planet, thousands of
millions of years ago. Space Weather refers to electromagnetic and particle conditions in
the near-Earth near space. It is controlled by solar activity. The whole space weather
chain extending from the Sun to the Earth’s surface is very complicated and includes
plasma physical processes, in which the interaction of the solar wind with the
geomagnetic field plays an essential role. Space weather phenomena statistically
follow the eleven-year sunspot cycle but large space weather storms can also occur
during sunspot minima. Changes of currents in the Earth’s magnetosphere and
ionosphere during a space weather storm produce temporal variations of the
geomagnetic field, i.e. geomagnetic disturbances and storms. Technological systems,
even humans, in space and on the ground may experience adverse effects from space
weather. At the Earth’s surface, space weather manifests itself as “Geomagnetically
Induced Currents” (GIC) in technological conductor networks, such as electric power
transmission grids, oil and gas pipelines, telecommunication cables and railway
circuits. Telecommunication systems have suffered from GIC problems several times
in the past. In fact, a few years ago our telecommunication satellites network was
severely affected by a very distance stellar explosion within our Galaxy. Optical fibre
cables generally used today are not directly affected by space weather. However,
metal wires lying in parallel with fibre cables are used to provide power to repeater
stations, and they may be prone to GIC impacts. Trans-oceanic submarine
