Table Of ContentSoybeans
Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization
Editors
Lawrence A. Johnson
Pamela J. White
Richard Galloway
mcs
PRESS
UNITED SOYBEAN BOARD
M&I# Ywc lhreL0lTP.Y M.
Urbana, Illinois
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M. Mossoba, Chairperson, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland
R. Adlof, USDA, ARS, NCAUR-Retired, Peoria, Illinois
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l? Dutta, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
T. Foglia, ARS, USDA, ERRC, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania
V. Huang, Yuanpei University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
L. Johnson, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
H. Knapp, DBC Research Center, Billings, Montana
D. Kodali, Global Agritech Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
G.R. List, USDA, NCAUR-Retired, Consulting, Peoria, Illinois
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T. McKeon, USDA, ARS, WRRC, Albany, California
R. Moreau, USDA, ARS, ERRC, Wyndoor, Pennsylvania
A. Sinclair, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
l? White, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
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ISBN 978-1-893997-64-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Soybeans : chemistry, production, processing, and utilization / editors, Lawrence A. Johnson, Pamela J.
White, Richard Galloway.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-893997-64-6 (alk. paper)
1. Soybean I. Johnson, Lawrence Alan, 1947- 11. White, Pamela J. 111. Galloway, Richard.
SB205.S7S557 2008
633.3’4-dc22
2008005938
Printed in the United States of America.
12 11 10 09 08 6 5 4 3 2
The paper used in this book is acid-free and falls within the guidelines established to ensure permanence
and durability.
Soybeans: Chemlstry, Production, Processing, and Utilization
Preface
We are pleased to offer to students, researchers, industry practitioners, and all who
are interested in the world’s most versatile crop, the most complete and authoritarian
book on soybeans: Soybeans: Chemistry, Production, Processing and Utilization. This is
one of several books comprising the AOCS Monograph Series on Oilseeds published
by AOCS Press of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, which provides the latest and
most comprehensive information on plant sources of fats, oils and protein meals of
vital importance in feeding the world and providing the many biobased products we
consume every day.
Ancient Chinese literature provides ample evidence that soybean was one of the
first plants to be domesticated and cultivated for food. Today, soybeans are recognized
to provide sources of functional foods and food ingredients with potential health ben-
efits, possibly playing roles in preventing cardiovascular disease and cancer protection
qualities. Soybeans are grown for both oil and protein. Indeed, no other widely grown
crop is more versatile in providing food, feed, fuel, and biobased products. With en-
ergy prices again on the rise, soybeans will become even more important in providing
the fuels and industrial products so important to maintaining our lifestyles. With
soybeans, modern agriculture can indeed deliver both food and fuel. The advent of
renewable fuels has radically altered how we use soybeans from just five years ago and
the present book will bring the reader up to date with these and other major changes.
Probably no other crop has been studied as much as soybeans and this book attempts
to summarize that knowledge base. Soybeans are often referred to as the miracle crop,
and if you doubt this notion, we think you will become convinced once reading this
book.
We strove to make this book as complete as possible, with ample references to as-
sist the reader in finding additional information on a particular topic. No other book
focuses on all aspects of the soybean. We modeled some chapters after those included
in Ihe PracticalHandbook of Soybeans, edited by David R. Erickson and published in
1995 by the AOCS Press. The present book was intended to be the one-stop reference
on soybeans, providing information with broad appeal, yet with sufficient depth to
meet the needs of both experts in the subject matter as well as individuals with cursory
knowledge of the topic.
As we considered who should contribute to this book, we chose the most interna-
tionally recognized authorities on each chapter topic. Much to our surprise and relief,
all our “first choices” for chapter authors enthusiastically agreed to assist with this
project, for which we are very grateful. All chapters underwent multiple reviews. We
vi i
gratefully acknowledge these authorities, noted on following pages, for their timely
and rigorous reviews that made this book better. All our chapter contributors and re-
viewers aim to provide the most accurate and complete information to our readers.
Lastly, we are grateful to AOCS st&, especially Jodey Schonfeld and Brock
Peoples, who guided the authors through the process, kept the editors "on track" and
worked very hard to make this book a success.
Lawrence A. Iohnson
Pamela]. White
Richard Galloway
Soybeans: Chemistry, Production, Processing, and Utilization
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................. vii
1: B eH istory of the Soybean
?heodore Hymowitz.. ............................................................................................... 1
2: Breeding, Genetics, and Production of Soybeans
James H. Orf.’. ....................................................................................................... 33
3: Harvesting, Storing, and Post-Harvest Management of Soybeans
CarlJ . Bern, H. Mark Hanna, and William E Wilcke ........................................... .67
4: Effect of Pests and Diseases on Soybean Quality
John Rupe and Randull G. Luttrell ......................................................................... 93
5: Economics of Soybean Production, Marketing, and Utilization
Peter D. Goldrmith. ................................................. ...................................... 117
6: Measurement and Maintenance of Soybean Quality
Marvin R. Paulsen ............................................................................................... 151
7:L ipids
Jose A. Gerde and PamelaJ. White. ....................................................................... 193
8: Soybean Proteins
Patricia A. Murphy. ............................................................................................. 229
9: Soybean Carbohydrates
Ingomar S. Middelbos and George C. Fahey, JK. .................................................... 269
10: Minor Constituents and Phytochemicals of Soybeans
Tong Wang ...................................................... ................................... .297
11: Oil Recovery from Soybeans
Lawrence A. Johnson ....................... ............................................................ 331
12: Soybean Oil Purification
Richard D. O’Brien ........................................................................... .377
13: Soybean Oil Modification
Richard D. O’Brien ............................................................................................ .409
14: Food Use of Whole Soybeans
KeShun Liu ......................................................................................................... 441
15: Food Uses for Soybean Oil and Alternatives to Gans Fatty Acids in Foods
Kathleen A. Warner .................................................................. .................... .483
V
I I
Johnson et al.
16: Bioenergy and Biofuels from Soybeans
Jon Van Gerpen and Gerhard Knothe ................................................................... .499
17: Biobased Products from Soybeans
John I? Schrnitz, Sevim Z.E rhan, Brajendra K Sharma, Lawrence A. Johigson,
and DelandJ. Myers ... ............. ...................................... .539
18: Nutritional Properties and Feeding Values of Soybeans and 'Their Coproducts
Hans H. Stein, Larry L. Berger, James K Drackley, George C. Fahey, JK,
David C. Hernot, and Carle M. Parsons.. ............................................................ .613
19: Soy Protein Products, Processing, and Utilization
Nicoh A. Deak, Lawrence A. Johnson, Edmund W Lusas, Khee Choon Rdbee.. ....... 661
20: Human Nutrition Value of Soybean Oil and Soy Protein
Alison M. Hill, Heather I. Katcher, Brent D. Flickinger,
and Penny M. Kris-Etherton ............................................................................... .725
2 1 : Soybean Production and Processing in Brazil
Peter D. Goldsmith. ............................................................................................ .773
........................................................................................................
Reviewers 799
...................................................................................................
Contributors 801
Index. .............. ........... 805
vi
'The History of the Soybean
Theodore Hymowitz
Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-ChampaignJL 61801
Introduction
The soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], together with wheat [Triticum uestivum L.],
maize [Zed muys L.], rice [Oryza sutivu L.], barley [Hordeurn vulgdre L.], sugarcane
[Succburumo $cinurum L.], sorghum [sorghumb icolor (L.) Moench], potato [Sohnum
tuberosum L.], oats [Avenus utiva L.] , cassava [Munibote sculentu Crantz] , sweet potato
[Ipomoea bututus (L.) Lam.], and sugar beet [Betu vuLguris L.], are the principal food
plants for humans (Harlan, 1992; Kasmakoglu, 2004).
Of the food plants, the soybean is unique in that the traditional foods in Asia
made from the soybean (e.g., tofu, miso, and soy sauce) bear no semblance to or as-
sociation with the crop growing in the field. The word soy comes from the Japanese
word sboyu and first appeared in a Japanese dictionary published in 1597 (Shurtleff
& Aoyagi, 1983). The popularity of tofu (bean curd) in China took place during the
latter half of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) (Shinoda, 1971). Miso is fermented
soybean paste that originated in China around the first century BCE. Today, Western-
ers refer to it by its Japanese name (Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 1983). The Chinese word for
soy sauce is jiung-you. Supposedly, it originated prior to the Zhou Dynasty (before
21 1 BCE)( Shurtleff & Aoyagi, 1983).
In the West, the two main products of the soybean are seed oil and the pro-
tein-containing meal. Soybean seeds contain 18-23Yo oil and 3844% protein on a
moisture-free basis. The oil is converted to margarine, mayonnaise, shortening, salad
oils, and salad dressings. The meal is used primarily as a source of high-protein feeds
for the production of pork, poultry, eggs, fish, beef, and milk. The soybean protein
also is used in the form of protein concentrates and isolates, and texturized protein
for human consumption (Hymowitz & Newell, 198 1). Today, soy is taken for granted
without appreciable forethought as to by whom, when, where, and how the soybean
was domesticated in China for human use; by whom and when the soybean was dis-
seminated throughout the world; and where the wild relatives of the soybean are and
can they be exploited for the development of improved culrivars (Hymowitz, 2004).
1
r l I
T. Hymowitz
Unfortunately, the popular literature concerned with the historical development of
the soybean is fraught with errors and misconceptions that keep recycling from one
publication or Web site to another without proper documentation (Hymowitz &
Shurtleff, 2005).
In the past, studies on the domestication of the soybean were extreimely difficult
for two main reasons: i) the soybean is autochthonous to the Orient, where Western
scientists were at a linguistic disadvantage with respect to historical records. However,
in the past 40 years, classical Chinese works were translated into English; establish-
ment of international soybean symposia (e.g., the World Soybean Congress) enables
Chinese and Western academicians interested in soybean history to meet and discuss
common issues on a regular basis; and lastly, molecular studies on soybean germplasm
resources are beginning to answer questions that were not asked previously; and ii)
many libraries were loathe to permit research scholars to handle fragile pages of ar-
chived manuscripts, books, and newspapers. However, today commercial companies
scan and digitize many key documents and place them on the Internet, and these
documents are available on commercial and public Web sites, especiallly at large re-
search institutions.
This chapter attempts to combine information from many disciplines to establish
a solid foundation for understanding the history of the soybean.
The Genus Glycine and its Immediate Allies
The genus Glycine Willd. is a member of the family Fabaceae/Leguminosae, subfamily
Papilionoideae, and tribe Phaseoleae. The Phaseoleae is the most economically impor-
tant tribe. It contains members that have considerable importance as sources of food
and feed, for example, Glycine max-soybean; Cajanus cajan (L.) Mil1sp.-pigeon
pea; Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet-hyacinth bean; Phaseolus spp.-common bean,
lima bean, tepary bean; Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.-winged bean; and
Kgna spp.-azuki bean, cow pea, and Bambarra groundnut (Hymowitz & Singh,
1987).
Within the tribe Phaseoleae, Lackey (1977a) recognized 16 genera of the subtribe
Glycininae, which he subdivided into two groups, Glycine and Shutaria, based upon
morphological alliances. The Glycine group is distributed in the Old World with
the exception of Teramnus, which has a pantropical distribution. The Slhuteria group
represents all of the other Glycininae. Polhill (19 94) transferred Calopogonium and
Pachyrhizus from the subtribe Diocleinae sensu Lackey (19 77a) to Glycininae and
reorganized 18 genera within Glycininae (see Table 1.1. ).
Lee and Hymowitz (2001) studied the phylogenetic relationships among 13 gen-
era of the subtribe Glycininae inferred from chloroplast DNA rpsl6 intron sequence
variation. Phylogenies estimated using parsimony and neighbor-joining methods re-
vealed that: (a) the genera Teramnw and Amphicarpea are closely related to Glycine
and (b) the genus Pueraria regarded as closely related to the genus (flycine is not
The History of the Soybean
Table 1.1. Genera, Number of Species, 2n Number, and Geographical Distribution in
the Sub-tribe Glycininae"
Genus No. of Species 2n Geographic Distribution
Arnphicarpaea 4 20,22,40 Asia, Africa and North America
Calopogonurn 9 36 South and Central America
~
Cologon ia 9 44 Central and S. America, Mexico
Durnasia 10 Asia, Africa
Diph yllariurn 1 20 Indochina
Erninia 4 22 Tropical Africa
Glycine 25 38, 40, 78, 80 Asia, Australia
Mastersia 2 22,44 lndo - Malaya
Neonotonia 2 22 Africa, Asia
Nogra 4 22 Asia
~~~
Pachyrhi zus 5 22 Neotropics
Pseuderninia 4 22 Tropical Africa
Pse udovigna 2 22 TroDical Africa
Pueraria 18 22 Asia
Shuteria 4 22 Indo-Malaya
Sinodolichos 2 Asia
Terarnn us 9 28 Pantropical
Teyleria 3 44 Asia
'Adapted from Lackey (1977a) and Polhill (1994).
monophyletic and should be divided into at least four genera, an idea previously sup-
ported by Lackey (19 77a).
Pueraria rnontana var. lobara (Willd.) Maesen and A.M. Almeida (ILDIS, 2006)
commonly is known as kudzu. These days it thrives as a weed throughout the south-
eastern part of the United States. Kudzu also acts as an alternate host for the economi-
cally important pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. The fungal pathogen known as
soybean rust over winters on kudzu in frost-free environments along the U.S. Gulf
Coast. It was first identified in the continental United States in 2004. Soybeans are
very susceptible to soybean rust and, if infected and left untreated, the plants quickly
defoliate and die. How much damage will occur to the soybean crop in the future by
the pathogen is uncertain.
I
T. Hymowitz
The Taxonomic History of the Genus Glycine
Glycine has a confused taxonomic history, which dates back to the time of its first
inception. The name Glycine was originally introduced by Linnaeus in the first edi-
tion of his Genera Plantarum (Linnaeus, 1737), and is based on Apios of Boerhaave
(Linnaeus, 1754). Glycine is derived from the Greekglykys (sweet) and probably refers
to the sweetness of the edible tubers produced by G. apios L. (Henderson, 1881), now
Apios americana Medik. In the Species Plantarum of 1753, Linnaeus listed eight Gly-
cine spp. (Table 1.2.). All of these were subsequently moved to other genera, although
G. javanica remained as the lectotype for the genus until 1966 (Hitchcock and Green,
1947). Thus, when G. apios became A. americana, the original justification for the
name Glycine was removed from the genus. Therefore, the Greekglykys does not refer
to any of the current Glycine species (Hymowitz & Singh, 1987).
The cultivated soybean was described by Linnaeus in 1753 as both Phaseolus
max, based on specimens that he saw, and Dolichos soja, which he compiled from the
descriptions of other writers. Later this gave rise to a great deal of confusion concern-
ing the correct nomenclature of the soybean. Linnaeus apparently had the soybean in
mind when he described D. soja, but, although l? max was based on actual specimens
of the soybean, Linnaeus apparently intended the name to apply to the mung bean
of India (Piper, 1914; Piper & Morse, 1923). It was not until several years later that
he obtained seed of D. soja and grew the plants at Uppsala, Sweden. Only then was
he able to see that l? max and D. soja were the same plant and that the mung bean
was still without a name. Thus, in Mantissa Plantarum published in 1767, Linnaeus
described the mung bean for the first time under l? mungo (Hymowiitz & Newell,
1981).
Table 1.2. The Species of Glycine According to Linnaeus (1 753)
and Their Subsequent Classificationu
Glycine Species Currently
Apios Apios
Frutescens Wisteria
Abrus Abrus
Tomentosa R hynchosia
Comosa Amphicarpeae
Java ni ca Neonotonia
Bracteata Amp hicarpeae
Bituminosa Fagelia
"Adapted from Hymowitz and Singh (1987) and Lackey
(1977 b).
