Table Of ContentSOVIETICA
PUBLICATIONS
OF THE INSTITUTE OF EAST-EUROPEAN STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF FRIBOURG /SWITZERLAND
Edited by
J. M. BOCHENSKI
SOVIET PHILOSOPHY
THOMAS J. BLAKELEY
Department of Philosophy. Boston College
SOVIET PHILOSOPHY
A General Introduction to Contemporary Soviet Thought
I
D. REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY DORDRECHT-HOLLAND
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-3608-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-010-3606-1
001: 10.1007/978-94-010-3606-1
© 1964 by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint,
microfilm or any other means, without permission from the publisher
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introductory Note VI
I Contemporary Soviet Philosophy: Definitions and Description 1
II Dialectical Materialism 11
III Matter 22
IV The Dialectic 27
V Thought 35
On Philosophy of Science. A Note 41
VI Psychology 42
VII Logic 47
VIII Historical Materialism 54
IX Ethics 66
X Esthetics 69
XI Atheism 71
XII History of Philosophy 76
On Ordering Soviet Books. A Note 79
Name-Index 80
V
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
This volume is intended as a general introduction to a relatively unkown -
at least in the United States - area of Soviet studies. We do not intend to
take up the question of the utility of such studies. It has competently
been dealt with elsewhere. * Suffice it to say that both those who reject
Marxist-Leninist philosophy out of hand as being irrelevant to the more
'essential' aspects of Soviet life and those who maintain that its influence
is marginal, can validly do so only if they have more than a superficial
knowledge of this peculiar philosophic system, i.e. they must know what
they are talking about.
Our purpose is double. First, this introduction will allow the student
to profitably plan and easily pursue his studies in Soviet philosophy,
whether this be his major field of study or an adjunct to studies in Soviet
history, sociology, politics, etc. Second, the general reading public will -
it is hoped - find this book useful as a guide to profitable reading on one
of the more significant aspects of contemporary Communism.
The division into chapters follows, wherever possible, that used by
the Soviet philosophers themselves. In each chapter, the first section
is a thematic outline of the Soviet views on the question at hand. This
is followed by a bibliographical section in two parts: the basic Soviet
texts in the field; and Western works discussing the Soviet views.
English-language sources have been cited where such exist. Wherever
other books are used, these are cited in English in the text and in the
original language in the references.
* Cf. J. M. Bochenski: 'Why Studies in Soviet Philosophy?' Studies in Soviet Thought
III (1963) 1-10.
VI
CHAPTER I
CONTEMPORARY SOVIET PHILOSOPHY:
DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTION
Contemporary Soviet philosophy is a part of the contemporary philo
sophic scene. As such, it has roots in the philosophic tradition and stands
in a certain relationship to other movements in contemporary philosophy.
More immediately, contemporary Soviet philosophy is an integral part
of contemporary Communism. We will, therefore, begin with a series
of definitions designed to situate philosophy within the over-all world
view of Communism, followed by a consideration of the remote - or
"classical" - sources of this philosophy, and its more immediate deriva
tion from Soviet philosophy prior to 1947.
I. Definitions
1.1 Communism is a social-ideological system espousing collectivism,
nationalization, materialism and atheism.
Two elements of this definition are to be stressed. "Social-ideological"
indicates that Communism is basically a specific form of social organiza
tion, combined with and inspired by a distinctive theoretical apparatus.
"Espousing" is used here, instead of "teaching" or "believing" to indicate
that each of the four elements is both a theory and a practical program.
I.ll Collectivism is a point of view - based on Hegel's "the true is
the whole" and Marx' idea of man as a "generic being" - which sees
man's reality as consisting in his total integration into and identification
with the diverse "collectivities" of which he is a member. As a practical
policy it consists in systematically subordinating the traits, interests and
pursuits of the individual to those of the collectivities.
1.12 Nationalization is a postulate of 'practical reason', according
to which the realization of the collectivist ideal is best achieved on the
economic level, which is the "basic" level, through state-ownership of
the means of production. The practical policy is the acquisition by the
state of such ownership.
1.13 Materialism is a philosophic point of view based on such prin
ciples as "all is matter or a function of matter", "the unity of the world
SOVIET PHILOSOPHY
consists in its materiality", etc. The practical policy said to follow from
it is contained in such maxims as "see reality as it is", "think concretely",
etc. (cf. Chapter VII, 3f.)
1.14 Atheism is the denial of the existence not only of a personal,
Christian-type God but of any type of supreme being (cf. Chapter XI, 2)
with the exception of eternal, self-moving matter, the "Absolute". In
practice, atheism is organized and militant opposition to any form of
religion and to any form of philosophy which could be construed as
favorable to or neutral toward religion (cf. Chapter XI, 1.2).
1.2 Marxism-Leninism is the theory of Communism.
First, Marxism-Leninism is not equivalent to Marxist-Leninist philo
sophy (see 1.3 below). Second, Marxism-Leninism is distinct from
Marxism. Use 'Marxian' for indicating the thought of Karl Marx him
self. Use 'Marxist' to indicate the thought of someone who took one or
more doctrines of Marx as the basis of his own thinking (including,
therefore, Lenin). Use 'Marxist-Leninist' for those who dogmatically
follow Lenin in his interpretation of Marx.
1.3 Marxism-Leninism is made up of philosophy, political economy
and scientific socialism.
1.31 Marxist-Leninist political economy is the analysis of the political
structures and economic relations existing in the five major historical
periods recognized by Marxian historicism.
The five periods are: primitive society, ancient society, feudal society,
capitalist society and socialist society. However, in actual practice,
Marxist-Leninist theoreticians assimilate the ancient and feudal periods
to capitalism under the heading 'class-society'. And, the very ambiguous
term 'socialism' has been superseded by a socialism-Communism dis
tinction wherein the former is a transitional phase leading to the latter
(cf. Chapter VIII, 6.221 if.). Whence, Marxist-Leninist political economy
analyzes capitalist society, socialist society, Communist society, and the
various transitional periods.
1.32 Marxist-Leninist scientific socialism is the study of contemporary
Soviet society as the realization of Marxism-Leninism.
Although this sector of Marxism-Leninism has only recently begun
to receive serious attention in the Soviet Union, it seems to be developing
into a type of ex post facto justification of Marxist-Leninist theory in
terms of what has actually happened in the Soviet Union since 1917.
2
DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTION
1.4 Marxist-Leninist philosophy is made up of dialectical materialism
and historical materialism.
2. Sources
Marxist-Leninist philosophy stems from the philosophic views of Marx,
Engels and Lenin - views which were, in turn, derived from the philosophy
of Hegel and from that of the eighteenth and nineteenth century scientific
materialists. Other elements came from the thought of Feuerbach and
from the Russian revolutionary traditions.
2.1 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) exercised the strong
est and most long-lasting influence on Marxist-Leninist philosophy. This
influence was both direct and indirect. Marx, Engels and Lenin each
,studied the philosophy of Hegel. In addition, each was influenced by the
Hegelianism of his predecessor. Marxist-Leninist philosophy has inherited
from Hegel its dialectical evolutionism, fundamentalist rationalism, and
syncretist monism.
2.11 A most valuable and readable introduction to Hegel's philosophy
in English is J. N. Findlay's Hegel: A Re-examination1•
2.12 As a general rule, contemporary Soviet works on Hegel tend
to be colored by extra-philosophic considerations. An example of the
better work of which they are capable is K. S. Bakradze's System and
Method of the Philosophy of Hegel2•
2.2 J. o. La Mettrie (1709-1751), P. H. D. d'Holbach (1723-1789),
D. Diderot (1713-1784), J. Moleschott (1822-1893), L. Buchner (1824-
1899) and C. A. Helvetius (1715-1771) are among the 'scientific mate
rialists' who have had a direct or indirect influence on contemporary
Marxist-Leninist philosophy. In reality, however, it was the materialistic
interpretation of Darwin's Origin of the Species (by Marx and Engels)
which has had the most permanent influence. This line of thought has
contributed to contemporary Marxist-Leninist philosophy its bent for
concentration on the sciences, its underlying sensualism, and its chronic
difficulties with the mechanicist aspects of materialism.
2.3 Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872) belonged to the radical left-wing
Hegelians (also called the 'young Hegelians'), so called because they
ignored the conservative personal views of Hegel and developed the
dialectical, 'revolutionary' side of his doctrine (others in the group:
D. F. Strauss, Max Stimer and Karl Marx). Feuerbach's The Essence of
3
SOVIET PHILOSOPHY
Christianity provided the essentials of Marx' doctrine on alienation.
3
Man magnifies and purifies his own nature and sets it up as an objec
tively existing being, to be revered and worshiped; this is God. Marx
agreed with Feuerbach but maintained that the latter had not gone far
enough, i.e. had not discovered all the alienations, and the cause of them.
2.31 Feuerbach's influence on contemporary Soviet philosophy is
completely channeled through Marx4•
2.4 Karl Marx (1818-1883) wrote his doctoral dissertation on The
Distinction between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophies of Nature
(1841)5, but his main influence on contemporary Sovietphi'losophycame
from his philosophy of society and of history, as exposed in The Critique
of the Hegelian Theory of Constitutional Law6, Criticism of the Hegelian
Philosophy of Right 7, and the Economico-Philosophical Manuscripts of
the Year 18448• The essential elements of Marx' views are (I) his concep
tion of man as a generic being who 'realizes' himself through productive
work, (2) his notion of the alienated existence of man in present circum
stances, wherein the economic alienation (of man from his work, from
the fruits thereof, and from his fellow men) is basic to the civic (man as
private and public), political (man as a social being and as an individual)
and religious (man against 'himself as God') forms of alienation - all
of which preclude the achievement of genericity, and (3) his 'materialist
conception of history' which provides - on the basis of his analysis of
society into 'base' and 'superstructure', and of history into five major
periods (cf. Chapter I, 1.31) - for the 'de-alienation' of man and his
'generalization' by correcting the economic base through social revolution,
hegemony of the proletariat and establishment of an ultimate societal
state called Communism.
2.41 In contemporary Soviet philosophical writings, works explicitly
on the doctrine of Marx - as distinct from Marxism-Leninism - are
relatively rare since the two doctrines are purported to be identical. Marx
is thus given credit not only for historical materialism but also for
dialectical materialism. A classic and readily available example of this
point of view is to be found in M. M. Rozental' 's Marxist Dialectical
Method9 and, more recently, in E. V. Il'enkov's Dialectic of the Abstract
and Concrete in Marx' 'Capital'lO.
2.42 Tucker's Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marxll provides an
English-language coverage of Marx' philosophical views.
4
DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTION
2.5 Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) worked closely with Marx in the
development of historical materialism. In his Anti-Dilhring12, Ludwig
Feuerbach13 and Dialectics of Nature14, Engels concentrated on the dia
lectical character of nature and thought, thereby giving rise to dialectical
materialism in general and dialectical logic in particular. The fact that
Engels - and Lenin after him - was interested in the scientific questions
of his era and more influenced than Marx by the 'scientific materialists',
served to contribute to contemporary Marxist-Leninist philosophy its
scientific bent.
2.51 For contemporary Soviet philosophy, Engels is philosophically
indistinguishable from Marx, except as regards the history and philo
sophy of science. The leading contemporary Soviet writer on Engels in
this latter role is B. M. Kedrov25•
2.6 Vladimir Il'ic Lenin (real name: Uljanov) (1870-1924) - the
founder of Marxism-Leninism - was influenced in the formation of his
social philosophy and revolutionary ideology by Marx (through G. V.
Plekhanov) and the Russian revolutionary tradition (principally the
nihilists: N. G. Cernysevskij, N. A. Dobroljubov, D. 1. Pisarev, etc., and
the popUlists: S. G. Necaev, P. Tkacev, and M. Bakunin), and in the
formation of his philosophic views by Engels, by his own readings in
Aristotle, Hegel, etc., and by his running fights with the Russian Machists
(A. A. Bogdanov, V. A. Bazarov, N. V. Valentinov, etc.) and the 'God
builders' (Lunacarskij and others). Lenin's contributions to historical
materialism, scattered throughout his works on revolution 16, include
(1) inversion of Marx' 'economic determinism' (the economic base
determines the ideological superstructure) and its replacement by 'poli
tical voluntarism' (the resolute activities of a doctrinaire revolutionary
group decisively influence the course of historical events), and (2) the
extrapolation of Marx' doctrine on classes and class-war to the in
ternational scene, in the form of 'imperialism as the highest stage of
capitalism' (according to which, just as the progressive and reac
tionary classes fight each other in the context of one society, the pro
gressive and reactionary nations fight each other on the international
scene).
Lenin wrote two philosophic works: Materialism and Empirio-Criti
cism17 where he takes issue with the Russian Machists and develops a
Marxist-Leninist epistemology, and Philosophical Notebooks18 which is
5
