Table Of ContentSpringer Series in Materials Science 273
Dmitry G. Eskin
Jiawei Mi Editors
Solidifi cation
Processing of
Metallic Alloys
Under External
Fields
Springer Series in Materials Science
Volume 273
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Dmitry G. Eskin Jiawei Mi
Editors
fi
Solidi cation Processing
of Metallic Alloys Under
External Fields
Editors
DmitryG.Eskin JiaweiMi
BrunelCentreforAdvanced SchoolofEngineering
SolidificationTechnology andComputerScience
BrunelUniversityLondon UniversityofHull
Uxbridge,Middlesex,UK Hull,UK
ISSN0933-033X ISSN2196-2812 (electronic)
SpringerSeriesinMaterialsScience
ISBN978-3-319-94841-6 ISBN978-3-319-94842-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94842-3
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Contents
1 BasicsofSolidificationProcessingofMetallicAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
DmitryG.Eskin
2 InSituStudiesoftheSolidificationDynamicsofMetalAlloys. . . . . . 19
JiaweiMi
3 MagnetohydrodynamicsProcessingandModeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
KoulisA.Pericleous,ValdisBojarevics,andGeorgiS.Djambazov
4 ElectromagneticStirringandLow-FrequencyElectromagnetic
Vibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
JianzhongCui,HaitaoZhang,LeiLi,YuboZuo,andHiromiNagaumi
5 High-FrequencyVibrationandUltrasonicProcessing. . . . . . . . . . . . 153
DmitryG.EskinandIakovosTzanakis
6 HighMagneticFieldProcessingofMetalAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
YvesFautrelle,JiangWang,DafanDu,XiLi,andZhongmingRen
7 PulseExternalFieldsProcessingofMetalAlloys. . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. 243
JiaweiMi
8 ThermalMeltProcessingofMetallicAlloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
UlfDahlborg,MoniqueCalvo-Dahlborg,DmitryG.Eskin,
andPiotrS.Popel
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
v
Contributors
ValdisBojarevics CentreforNumericalModellingandProcessAnalysis,Univer-
sityofGreenwich,London,UK
Monique Calvo-Dahlborg UniversitédeRouenNormandie, GroupedePhysique
desMateriaux,Saint-Etienne-du-RouvrayCedex,France
Jianzhong Cui Key Lab of Electromagnetic Processing of Materials, Ministry
ofEducation,NortheasternUniversity,Shenyang,Liaoning,China
Ulf Dahlborg Université de Rouen Normandie, Groupe de Physique des
Materiaux,Saint-Etienne-du-RouvrayCedex,France
Georgi S. Djambazov Centre for Numerical Modelling and Process Analysis,
UniversityofGreenwich,London,UK
DafanDu ShanghaiKeyLaboratoryofModernMetallurgy&MaterialProcessing,
Department of Material Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai,
People’sRepublicofChina
Dmitry G. Eskin Brunel Centre for Advanced Solidification Technology, Brunel
UniversityLondon,Uxbridge,Middlesex,UK
Yves Fautrelle Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP*, SIMaP, Grenoble,
France
LeiLi KeyLabofElectromagneticProcessingofMaterials,MinistryofEducation,
NortheasternUniversity,Shenyang,Liaoning,China
Xi Li Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Metallurgy & Material Processing,
Department of Material Science and Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai,
People’sRepublicofChina
vii
viii Contributors
JiaweiMi SchoolofEngineeringandComputerScience,UniversityofHull,Hull,
UK
HiromiNagaumi SchoolofIronandSteel,SoochowUniversity,Suzhou,Jiangsu,
China
Koulis A. Pericleous Centre for Numerical Modelling and Process Analysis,
UniversityofGreenwich,London,UK
Piotr S. Popel Ural State Pedagogical University, Department of Physics and
MathematicalModelling,Ekaterinburg,Russia
Zhongming Ren Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Metallurgy & Material
Processing,DepartmentofMaterialScienceandEngineering,ShanghaiUniversity,
Shanghai,People’sRepublicofChina
IakovosTzanakis OxfordBrookesUniversity,WheatleyCampus,Oxford,UK
Jiang Wang Shanghai Key Laboratory of Modern Metallurgy & Material
Processing,DepartmentofMaterialScienceandEngineering,ShanghaiUniversity,
Shanghai,People’sRepublicofChina
Haitao Zhang Key Lab of Electromagnetic Processing of Materials, Ministry of
Education,NortheasternUniversity,Shenyang,Liaoning,China
Yubo Zuo Key Lab of Electromagnetic Processing of Materials, Ministry of
Education,NortheasternUniversity,Shenyang,Liaoning,China
Chapter 1
fi
Basics of Solidi cation Processing
of Metallic Alloys
DmitryG.Eskin
1.1 Structure Formation Upon Casting
Themicro-andmacrostructureofcastmetalisveryimportantfromthepointofview
of casting and downstream processing performance, as it determines the quality of
thecastingandmechanicalpropertiesofas-castanddeformedproducts.Finegrain
structuremeansuniformdistributionofgrainsizeinthebillet(ingot)cross-section,
elimination ofcolumnarand feathery grains, lesser macrosegregation,uniform and
improvedmechanicalpropertiesinthesemisolidandsolidstates,decreasedpropen-
sity to hot and cold cracks, etc. Intermetallics and other excess inclusions (oxides,
carbides,nitrides,borides,etc.)shouldalsobefineandevenlydistributedinthecast
matrix.Theseinclusionsareusuallyintrinsictothemetallicmaterialandresultfrom
itscompositionorcontamination.Sometimes,however,theforeigninclusionsmay
be intentionally added to form a composite material or for the purpose of grain
refining(actingassubstrates).
Inthissection,wewillconsiderthemainmechanismsofstructureformationand
outlinethemainmeanstoaffectorcontrolthisstructure.
Structure formationonthemicroscopicleveldependsontwobasicphenomena:
nucleationandgrowth.
Thefundamentalsofnucleationarediscussedindetailelsewhere[1,2].Here,we
onlyconsidersomemostimportantparametersofheterogeneousnucleation,asthis
typeofnucleationismostrelevanttorealcastingpractice.
The solidification sites (or substrates, or heterogeneous nuclei) that ease the
nucleation are specially introduced or naturally form in the melt. Heterogeneous
D.G.Eskin(*)
BrunelCentreforAdvancedSolidificationTechnology,BrunelUniversityLondon,
Uxbridge,Middlesex,UK
e-mail:[email protected]
©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2018 1
D.G.Eskin,J.Mi(eds.),SolidificationProcessingofMetallicAlloys
UnderExternalFields,SpringerSeriesinMaterialsScience273,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94842-3_1
2 D.G.Eskin
nucleation is energetically advantageous over homogeneous nucleation as the
undercooling (energy stimulus) required for the formation of the new solid phase
from the melt is lower by the level of energy required to form the new interface.
Hence, heterogeneous nucleation is stimulated by the decrease of the interfacial
energythatisrequiredtoformthenewsolidphase.Thesubstratethatcanefficiently
dothejobshouldtherefore:(1)bewettablebytheliquidphase(active);(2)provide
crystallographicplanesthatresemblethecrystallographicplanesofthesolidphase;
(3)providechemistryrequiredfortheformationofthenewphase;and(4)beofthe
sizethatmatchestheactualundercoolingachieveduponsolidification.Forexample,
the actual undercooling required for activation ofall potent heterogeneous solidifi-
cationsitesinliquidaluminumislessthan2(cid:1)C[2].Thetype,amount,andsizeofthe
substratesdeterminetheefficiencyofheterogeneousnucleation.First,particleshave
to be sufficiently large to become active substrates at a given undercooling. In the
caseofgoodwettingandcrystallographicmatch,therequiredundercoolingisvery
small.Thenucleationratedependssolelyonthetemperature(notonthetimesince
nucleation occursinstantaneously), and this type of nucleation is sometimes called
“athermal,”thoughthistermismisleading.Then,growthoccursuntilthenewphase
reaches the size of the substrate and subsequent growth will require further
undercooling. The nature of the substrate (interfacial energy) determines how
efficient the nucleation is, while the size of the substrate determines the ease of
subsequentgrowth[3].
The undercooling ΔT for the so-called free growth is related to the size of the
substratedas
4σ
ΔT ¼ sl , ð1:1Þ
ΔS d
V
whereσ isthesolid–liquidinterfacialenergyandΔS isthevolumetricentropyof
sl V
fusion. In reality, there is a size distribution of potential solidification sites that
becomeactiveinthemeltataspecificdegreeofundercooling.Forthesubstratesize
of 1 μm, the required undercooling for free growth in liquid aluminum is about
0.5(cid:1)C,whereastherealmeasuredundercoolinginaluminumalloysisabout0.2(cid:1)C
whichcorrespondstothesizerange3–5μm[3].
Thegrowthofthenucleatedgrainisdeterminedtoalargeextentbythecompo-
sitionofthemeltaheadofthesolid–liquidinterface.Despitethecommonnotionthat
the diffusion in liquid occurs almost instantaneously, there is always an accumula-
tionofsoluteelementsatthesolid–liquidinterfaceascomparedtothebulkcompo-
sition. This accumulation causes on the one hand the phenomenon called
constitutionalundercooling,andontheotherhandpreventsthegrowthofthesolid
phase, as thegrowth can only occur when thecompositions of thesolidand liquid
phases at the solid–liquid interface are in equilibrium, according to the phase
diagram. The degree of solute accumulation depends on the alloy composition
(partitioning coefficients of alloying elements) and on the solidification conditions
(diffusion and convection), which explains why the final structure formed in
a casting depends on both the alloy composition and the casting conditions
