Solar PV power design, manufacturing and applications from sand to systems

497 Pages·2021·48.682 MB·English

by  Rabindra Satpathy

Solar PV Power
Solar PV Power
Design, Manufacturing and
Applications from Sand to Systems
Rabindra Satpathy
Venkateswarlu Pamuru
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Dedication
Dedicated to my beloved mother, the late Smt. Charubala Satpathy,
who inspired me to be a solar engineer from my college days.
Rabindra Satpathy
Dedicated to my beloved mother, the late Smt. Pamuru Subamma.
Dr. Venkateswarlu Pamuru
About the authors
Rabindra Satpathy
HeisanelectricalengineeringgraduatefromNIT,Warangal.Hehasmorethan
30yearsofprofessionalexperienceintheareaofrenewableenergy,thatis,in
thefieldsofsolarphotovoltaic(PV)powersystems,windpowergeneration,
andothers.Hestartedhissolarcareerin1984attheOdishaRenewableEnergy
Development Agency,installing India’sfirst25KwpsolarPV dieselhybrid
system, aPVwindhybridsystem,anda 1.1MWwindfarm.Heservedasa
key member of the management team at Tata BP Solar, Bangalore, from
1990 to 2002. He was instrumental in setting up India’s first 5MW project
inRajasthananda1MWrooftopprojectfortheThyagarajSportsComplex,
New Delhi, as president of Reliance Industries Limited-Solar Group from
2007to2013.Hewasinvolvedinestablishingasolarmoduleandcellfactory
aswellasplanningforalargemanufacturingfacilityforpolysilicontosystems.
Affiliations and expertise
BoardMemberofInternationalSolarEnergySocietyinFreiburg,Germany.
Venkateswarlu Pamuru
He holds a Ph.D. in material science from the Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore.HeworkedintheIndianSpaceResearchOrganisationfor23years
asascientistinthesolarpanelsdivision.Hewasinvolvedinthedevelopment
ofspacesolarpaneltechnologywithSi,GaAs,andmultijunctionsolarcells.
He worked as a project manager for the solar array for the INSAT-2C and
INSAT-2D satellites and was involved in the design, manufacturing, and
testingofsolarpanelsforsatellites.Hewasinvolvedintheestablishmentof
Sisolarcellandmodulemanufacturinglines.Healsodevelopedthefabrication
process and produced modules at Moserbaer Photovoltaics and Reliance
Industries.Heiscurrentlyinvolvedinthedesignandengineeringofrooftop
and ground-mounted solar PV power systems as well as monitoring the
operationalandmaintenanceaspectsofsolarPVplants.
Affiliations and expertise
WorkedasGeneralManager,Engineering,QuantaPowerSolutionsIndiaPvt.ltd.PresentlyassociatedwithGrand
SolarPvt.Ltd.,Chennai,India.
xvii
Foreword
When my good colleague Rabindra Satpathy and his coauthor Venkateswartu Pamuru asked me to
writeaforewordforthisimportantvolume,Iacceptedimmediately.Duringmy10yearsaspresident
oftheInternationalSolarEnergySociety(ISES)from2010to2019,IworkedcloselywithRabindraon
theexecutivecommitteetoformulateISESprograms,withparticularemphasisonPV-relatedactivities
in India and around the world. ISES is the oldest continuously operating solar energy society in the
world,withitsrootsdatingallthewaybackto1954withtheformationoftheAssociationforApplied
Solar Energy in Arizona. Perhaps not so coincidentally, this was the same year that Bell Telephone
Laboratories patented the first commercial solar cell. The Society, which became officially known
as ISES in1970,has advocated for governments, universities, and private industry toinvest insolar
energyresearch,development,anddeployment,andtoreportonthisworkthroughscientificconfer-
encesandtechnicalpublications.Theseactivities,andinparticulartheISESSolarEnergyJournaland
theISESSolarWorldCongressesandmorerecentlytheISESwebinarseries,havecertainlyhadasig-
nificantinfluenceontheremarkablegrowthofthesolarindustryfromwattstogigawattsduringthepast
half century. According to recent reports,a the worldwide installed capacity of PV power systems is
now estimated at 650 GW (as of mid-2020) and will likely exceed 1 TW in just a few short years,b
meetingas much as10%ofthe world’s electricity needs.
SolarPVPowerservesasatextbook-leveldescriptionoftheentiresolarsupplychain,startingin
theearlychapterswithdetaileddiscussionsofthebasicingredientsandthemanufacturingprocessesof
silicon-basedPVsystems,andconcludingwithchaptersthatdiscussthemultitudeofapplicationsof
PVsystemsbeingusedtoday.Specifically,Chapter1setsthestagewithacomprehensivedescription
ofthefoundationofsilicon-basedPVsystems,quartz:whythisingredientisrequiredforpolysilicon
production,anditscurrentpriceandavailability.Thechapterthencontinueswiththebasicmanufactur-
ingprocessesforpolysilicon,coveringtopicssuchaspolysiliconspecificationsandtheprocessofcon-
vertingquartztosolar-gradesilicon.ThechaptersignificantlyhighlightstheSiemensmanufacturing
processandtheequipmentusedinthisprocess,butalsoexaminesalternativemanufacturingprocesses
such asfluidized bed reactors.
Chapter2thendelvesintotheprocessofgrowingsiliconcrystalstomakeingots,whicharefun-
damental to producing silicon crystalline solar cells. The chapter summarizes processes for making
ingotsandingotcasts,anddescribesequipmentrequiredforingotmanufacturing.Topicssuchasqual-
itytestingandreliabilityarealsodiscussed.Thechapterconcludeswithadiscussiononmanufacturers
andthemanufacturingcapacityofingotsgloballyaswellastechnologytrendsandananalysisofthe
pricing ofingots.
Theconventionalprocessesaswellasnewapproachesforsiliconwafermanufacturingarethefocus
of Chapter 3. The discussion of conventional processes includes first establishing specifications
forwafers,theprocessformakingwaferssuchasingotslicingusingwireanddiamondsaws,quality
testing and reliability, and the equipment required for wafer manufacturing. Current silicon wafer
manufacturers as well as technology trends and pricing analysis of wafers are also included in this
aREN21GlobalStatusReport,2019.
bSolarPowerEuropeGlobalMarketOutlook,2019–2023.
xix
xx Foreword
discussionofconventionalmanufacturingapproaches.Chapter3thenbringsupvarioustopicscovering
newmanufacturinginnovations,suchasthe1366processandtheKerflosswaferprocessbyepitaxy.
Thechapterfurtherexploresnewtrendsinthesenewprocesses,includingtheiradvantagesanddisad-
vantages, andcost reduction opportunities indirect wafer manufacturing.
Fromsiliconwafermanufacturing,Chapter4goesintogreatdetailtopresenttheall-importanttopic
ofmanufacturingcrystallinesiliconsolarcells.Followingabasicdescriptionofthephysicsofsolarcells,
thereisanextensivediscussionofprocessesintheirmanufactureandthemanyaspectsrelatedtomain-
taininghighqualitycontrolduringthemanufacturingprocess.First,thewafersmustbechecked,andsaw
damageremoved.Topicssuchasetchinganddoping,includingtheequipmentusedintheseprocesses,
aregivensubstantialdiscussion.Then,processessuchasetchingofphosphorsilicateglass,antireflection
coatingdeposition,contactmaking(e.g.,screenprinting,photolithographyandevaporation,andelec-
troplating),andthetestingandsortingofsolarcellsarecovered.Thesubsectionofcellmanufacturingis
cappedoffwithadescriptionofsunsimulatorrequirementsandsuppliers.Chapter4thenprovidesmore
comprehensivedescriptions,includingmanufacturingprocesses,ofP-typevs.N-typesolarcells,the
PERC/PERLcells,bifacialcells,andadvancedhighefficiencycells.Aswithpreviousandsubsequent
chapters, Chapter 4 closes with descriptions of equipment used in solar cell manufacturing, a list of
siliconsolarcellmanufacturers,andtechnologytrendsandpricinganalysisofsolarcells.
Chapter5thencoversthemanufacturingofcrystallinesiliconsolarPVmodels.Afterprovidinga
descriptionofthespecificationsofsolarmodules,thechapterdigsintothemanydetailedaspectsin-
volvedinthemanufacturingprocess,suchasthesuperstrateandsubstrate,encapsulant,solarribbons,
thejunctionboxandframe,adhesives,solarcelltabbingandstringing,solarcircuitlayout,electrical
testing,etc.ProcessesinvolvingspecialtypesofPVmodules,suchasbifacialandglass-to-glass,arealso
covered.Thechapterthengoesintoreliabilityandtestingprocedures,offersalistofmanufacturersof
siliconPVmodules,andprovidesinformationontechnologytrendsandpricinganalysisofsolarPV
modules.
The remaining chapters of the book deal with the extensive types of end-use power applications
offeredbysolarPVsystems.Chapter6introducesasummaryofthemanytraditionalsolarpowerap-
plications,suchashybridpowersystems,solarhomesystems,streetlighting,waterpumping,andbat-
tery charging. The chapter also presents new, innovative applications that offer possibilities of
significantexpansionofsolarsystemutilization,suchasfloatingsolarPV,electricvehiclecharging,
and even solar-powered wheelchairsand drones.
Thenextchaptersgointofurtherdetailonspecificcategoriesofapplications.Chapter7,forexam-
ple,coverstheveryimportanttopicofoff-gridsolarPVsystems,includingsystemcomponents,system
design,costing,andsomeexamples.Thechapterincludesinformationaboutsystemreliabilityandlife
cyclecostanalysisaswellastypicalexamplesofsystemperformanceusinganalysisandcalculations.
Approximately 1 billion people around the world, and especially in Africa and south and southeast
Asia,arestillwithoutadequateaccesstoreliableelectricityservices,sothischapteriskeytodescribing
how solarPVcan make electrical energy accessible toeveryone.
Anotherkeyapplicationisrooftopsolar(wherethesolarPVsystemisintegratedintothelocalelec-
tricaldistributionsystem)andbuilding-integratedPV(BIPV).Chapter8providesadescriptionofroof-
top solar and BIPV, including the components involved, the design of these systems, and costing
information.Fieldapplicationsandexamplesofrooftopsolarsystemsarepresented,alongwithexam-
plesofsystemperformanceanalysisbasedoncalculations.Keyinformationaboutthereliabilityand
life cyclecost analysisof rooftop andBIPVsystemsis also provided.
Foreword xxi
Despite the ongoing importance of distributed solar applications such as described in Chapters 7
and 8, there is a growing trend to develop solar farms, serving as central power stations connected
tonationalorregionalgrids.Thishasbecomethelowest-costsolutionforprovidingbulksolarpower
to the grid, and recently has become the lowest-cost solution for adding power to the grid from any
source in many cases. Chapter 9 addresses this topic in detail by providing an overall description
of grid-connected solar PV systems, and the components required to make the connection, such as
inverters, DC and AC cables, array junction boxes or DC string combiner boxes, module mounting
structures,andothercivilworks.Chapter9alsoprovidesinformationonACsystemsandprotections
andpropergrounding.Designaspects,includingsimulationtools,costingaspects,andlifecyclecost
analyses, are also covered.
Finally, in Chapter 10 an overall discussion of grid integration and the performance of solar PV
power systems is presented. This chapter covers topics such as requirements for AC systems, trans-
formers, switchgears, substations, and transmission lines as well as protection requirements.
The chapter presents methodologies and calculation schemes for performance analysis and presents
key informationon system reliability aswell as operation and maintenancerequirements.
Overthepasthalfcentury,solarPVhasevolvedfromacuriouslaboratoryexperimentwithlimited
commercialusetoanelegantandlow-costtechnologythatprovides,especiallywithstoragesystems,
reliableelectricityservicesalmostanywhereandatalmostanyscale,fromremoteandoff-gridappli-
cationstobulkenergysupplyintonationalgrids.Withourelectricitydemandsincreasingrelativetoall
otherenergydemands,andwithagrowingclimatecrisisthatplacesurgencyondecarbonizingouren-
ergy supply, solar PV power system applications of all forms are destined to grow substantially and
rapidly.TheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency’sRE-MAPanalysiscshowsthatpossiblymore
than8.4TWofPVcapacitywillbeinstalledworldwidebythemiddleofthiscentury,roughly12times
thecurrentinstalledcapacity.Akeytothisgrowth,however,istoeducateandtrainaworkforcethat
cancontinuouslysupportthistechnology,andtoinformpolicymakersandenergydecisionmakersof
the low cost and reliability of solar PV technologies. Solar PV Power serves as a very important
contribution to supporting the growth of solar PV. I commend the coauthors Rabindra Satpathy and
Venkateshwarlu Pamuru for this remarkable work and encourage all readers to make frequent use
of thisbook as they develop their own solar powerprograms.
David Renn(cid:1)e
FormerScientistofNRELandImmediatePastPresidentoftheInternationalSolarEnergySociety
cIRENA Global Energy Transformation, 2019 Edition: https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/
2019/Apr/IRENA_Global_Energy_Transformation_2019.pdf.
Acknowledgments
Theauthorsarethankfultoallthepeopleassociatedwiththisbook,fromitsconceptualizationthrough
its completion.
Our gratitude goes to Padmabibhushan—Dr. R.L. Mashelkar, former Director General of the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and a member of the board of directors of Reliance
IndustriesLtd.,whosupportedusinwritingthisbook,whichcouldserveasaguidetoallsolarenthu-
siasts,engineers, scientists, young entrepreneurs, andthe overall solar communityat large.
Rabindra Satpathy would like to express thanks to his wife, Mamta Satpathy, and his daughter,
Dr.ArushiSatpathy,fortheirunwaveringencouragementandmoraleboostsduringtheentirejourney
of thisbook.
Satpathywouldalsoliketoconveyspecialthanksandgratitudetohisbrother-in-law,Manoranjan
Mohapatra(Mao),whoprovidedthecourageandstimulationneededforthecompletionofthisbook.
His supportwas ofparamount importancewhile working on this bookin Bangalore inearly 2020.
Dr.VenkateswarluPamuruwouldliketoextendthankstohissons,P.VenugopalandP.Ravikanth,
forlendingtheirexpertiseindrawingsforvariouschaptersaswellastheirconstantmotivationduring
the book writing journey. He would also like to thank his wife, P. Vijayalakshmi, for continuous
support.
ThecompletionofthisbookcouldnothavebeenaccomplishedwithoutthesupportofDr.Gopal
Krishnan,whoprovidedexcellenttechnicalsupportonthepolysiliconprocess,fromhisvastexperi-
ence in the only company that makes polysilicon in India, Mettur Chemicals. Thanks also go to
Prof.S.Venugopalanforhisinsightfulinputforthe“Batteries,EnergyStorage,andElectricVehicle
Charging”.Andlastly,MadanKumar.G,fordraftingandcreatingalltheAutoCADdrawingsandother
images used inthisbook.
Finally, the authors would also like tothank alltheir colleaguesand friends who have been with
them in this endeavor and for their unforgettable help and assistance in the successful writing of
the variouschapters ofthis book.
xxiii
CHAPTER
1
Manufacturing of polysilicon
1.1 Introduction
ThereisanincreasingdemandforsolarPVinstallationintheworld.In2019, 97.1GWpofsolarPV
capacityhasbeeninstalledglobally[1].AsperGTMresearch,within5years,theinstalledPVcapacity
willreach1terawatt [2].SiliconhasbeentheworkhorsematerialsincetheinceptionofthesolarPV
p
industryand90%ofPVinstallationsweredonewithSisolarcell-basedmodules.Tomeetthisdemand,
very large quantities of polysilicon feedstock material are required to manufacture Si solar cells. To
produce solar-gradeSi, high purity quartz is required.
Quartz is available in abundance in the Earth’s crust in many parts of the world. SiO , which is
2
silica,is one ofthe major sources ofquartz. It has many applications, such as in the manufacture of
glass,ceramics,syntheticinorganiccrystalphases,refractoryminerals,andotheruses.Althoughquartz
isavailableinexcess,itisnotfoundinhighpurityinmanyplacesaroundtheworld.Quartzisasought-
afteritemandisusedbymanyimportantindustriessuchassemiconductors,high-temperaturecruci-
bles,and solar wafer/cellmanufacturing.
Siliconisusedasarawmaterialinthechemicalandsemiconductorindustries.Itisalsousedinthe
alloyingofsteel,castiron,andaluminum.Themajorportionofsiliconproductionisferrosiliconwhile
theremainingportionthatisproducedismetallurgical-grade(MG)silicon.Metallurgical-gradesilicon
is used inthe production ofsolar-grade silicon for solarwafer/cell manufacturing.
Annually,millionsofmetrictonsofferrosiliconandsiliconmaterialarerefined.Siliconismostly
usedinthemanufacturingofcement,mortars,ceramics,glass,andpolymers.Silicon-basedpolymers
areadditionallyutilizedasoptionsincontrasttohydrocarbon-baseditems.Theycanshowupinnu-
merous everydayproducts, for example, lubricants,adhesives, greases, skin and haircare items.
Metallurgicalsiliconisusedinsteelmakingandinaluminumcastingasanalloyingagent.Itisused
inmakingfumedsilica,whichisathickeningagent;silanes,whicharecouplingagents;andproducing
silicones by the chemical industries.So,thereis a large demand for quartz material.
1.2 Quartz--the input for polysilicon production
Thereisanincreasingdemandforsiliconmetalusedinthemanufactureofsolarcells,whichiscur-
rentlyagrowingindustry.Nexttooxygen,siliconisthesecondmostabundantelementavailableon
Earth. Si occurs only in an oxidized state in the form of rock quartz or other silicate materials.
1
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