Table Of ContentSOIL SCIENCE
AND ARCHAEOLOGY
Three Test Cases from Minoan Crete
soil science and archaeology
three test cases from minoan crete
soil science
and archaeology
three test cases from minoan crete
michael W. morris
Prehistory monograPhs 4
Published by
the institute foraegean Prehistoryacademic Press
2002
design and Production
the institute for aegean Prehistory academic Press
Printing
sun Printing co., Philadelphia
Binding
hoster Bindery, Philadelphia
library of congress cataloging-in-Publication data
morris, michael, 1957-
soil science and archaeology : three test cases from minoan crete / by
michael morris.
p. cm. -- (Prehistory monographs ; 4)
includes bibliographical references and index.
isBn 1-931534-03-9 (alk. paper)
1. crete (greece)--antiquities. 2. soil science in
archaeology--greece--crete. 3. minoans. 4. excavations
(archaeology)--greece--crete. i. title. ii. series.
df221.c8 m68 2002
939'.18--dc21
2002006593
copyright © 2002
the institute foraegean Prehistoryacademic Press
Philadelphia
all rights reserved
Printed in the united states of america
taBle of contents
list of figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
list of taBles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
list of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
acKnoWledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
chaPter 1: the enVironmental and cultural dynamics
of crete and the eastern mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
history of the eXcaVations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
PhysiograPhy of crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
PaleoenVironment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
deep sea cores and stable isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Pollen and Paleovegetation analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Paleopedology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Pedology and archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
models of Pedogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
chronosequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
discontinuities and Buried soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Pedological archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
chaPter 2: KarPhi. sedimentation and Pedogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
site setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
site history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
field methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
vi taBle of contents
results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Karphi 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Karphi 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Karphi 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Karphi 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
chaPter 3: chrysoKamino. an inVestigation
of a Vertisol in eastern crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
BacKground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
site setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
site history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
field methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
chaPter 4: Vronda and Kastro at KaVousi. dePosition, erosion,
and Pedogenesis of alluVial and colluVial soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
site setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
site history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
field methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Kavousi 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Kavousi 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
taBles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
aPPendiX a: soil Profile descriPtions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
aPPendiX B: results of total element analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
aPPendiX c: laBoratory methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
BiBliograPhical references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
indeX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Plates
list of figures
figure 1. map of crete showing physiographic areas, major cities
and archaeological sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii
figure 2. fao soil sample map for the island of crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
figure 3. Plan view of the Karphi archaeological site and location
of the study pedons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
figure 4. Bedrock geology of the Karphi study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
figure 5. total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the
Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
figure 6. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle
size analysis, vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
figure 7. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
figure 8. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
figure 9. total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the
Karphi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
figure 10. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle
size analysis,vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
figure 11. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
figure 12. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
figure 13. total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the
Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
figure 14. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
figure 15. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
viii list of figures
figure 16. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
figure 17. total carbon and fine clay distribution vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . .38
figure 18. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
figure 19. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
figure 20. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Karphi 4 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
figure 21. Plan view of the Kavousi area including the Vronda and Kastro
archaeological sites and the Kavousi study pedons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
figure 22. Bedrock geology of the Kavousi study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
figure 23. distribution of minoan ceramic artifacts in a 1 m x 2.1 m profile
section at the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
figure 24. distribution of inorganic and organic carbon vs. depth for the
Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
figure 25. distribution of coarse and fine clay, as determined by particle
size analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
figure 26. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
figure 27. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
figure 28. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
figure 29. X-ray diffractograms of a clay sample from the Bss2 horizon
(100–200 cm) of the Kavousi 3 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
figure 30. distribution of inorganic and organic carbon vs. depth for the
Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
figure 31. distribution of coarse and fine clay, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
figure 32. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth fro the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
figure 33. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
figure 34. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Kavousi 1 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
figure 35. distribution of inorganic and organic carbon vs. depth for the
Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
figure 36. distribution of coarse and fine clay, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
list of figures ix
figure 37. distribution of clay-free ratios, as determined by particle size
analysis, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
figure 38. Plot of weathering indices, as determined by total element analysis and
citrate-dithionite extraction, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
figure 39. distribution of extractable elements, as determined by archaeological
extraction method, vs. depth for the Kavousi 2 soil pedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
