Soil Heavy Metals: Soil Heavy Metals

496 Pages·2010·16.69 MB·English

by  Helwig Hohl

Soil Biology 1
Volume 19
2
Series Editor 3
Ajit Varma, Amity Institute of Microbial Technology,
4
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, UP, India
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i
6 Volumes published in the series
7 Symbiotic Fungi (Vol.18)
8 A. Varma, A.C. Kharkwal (Eds).
9 Advances in Applied Bioremediation (Vol. 17)
10 A. Singh, R.C. Kuhad, O.P. Ward (Eds).
11 Permafrost Soils (Vol. 16)
12 R. Margesin (Ed.)
13 Molecular Mechanisms of Plant and Microbe Coexistence (Vol. 15)
14 C.S. Nautiyal, P. Dion (Eds.)
15 Secondary Metabolites in Soil Ecology (Vol. 14)
16 P. Karlovsky (Ed.)
17 Microbiology of Extreme Soils (Vol. 13)
18 P. Dion, C.S. Nautiyal (Eds.)
19 Microbial Siderophores (Vol. 12)
20 A. Varma, S. Chincholkar (Eds.)
21 Advanced Techniques in Soil Microbiology (Vol. 11)
22 A. Varma, R. Oelmüller (Eds.)
23 Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems (Vol. 10)
24 P. Marschner, Z. Rengel (Eds.)
25 Microbial Root Endophytes (Vol. 9)
26 B.J.E. Schulz, C.J.C. Boyle, T.N. Sieber (Eds.)
27 Nucleic Acids and Proteins in Soil (Vol. 8)
28 P. Nannipieri, K. Smalla (Eds.)
29 Microbial Activity in the Rhizosphere (Vol. 7)
30 K.G. Mukerji, C. Manoharachary, J. Singh (Eds.)
31 Intestinal Microorganisms of Termites and Other Invertebrates (Vol. 6)
32 H. König, A. Varma (Eds.)
33 Manual for Soil Analysis – Monitoring and Assessing Soil
34 Bioremediation (Vol. 5)
35 R. Margesin, F. Schinner (Eds.)
36 In Vitro Culture of Mycorrhizas (Vol. 4)
37 S. Declerck, D.-G. Strullu, J.A. Fortin (Eds.)
38 Microorganisms in Soils: Roles in Genesis and Functions (Vol. 3)
39 F. Buscot, A. Varma (Eds.)
40 Biodegradation and Bioremediation (Vol. 2)
41 A. Singh, O.P. Ward (Eds.)
iii
Irena Sherameti Ajit Varma 42
•
Editors
43
Soil Heavy Metals
44
iv
47 Editors
48 Dr. Irena Sherameti Prof. Dr. Ajit Varma
49 Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Director General
50 Institut für Allgemeine Botanik und Amity Institute of Microbial Technology
51 Pflanzenphysiologie Amity University Uttar Pradesh
52 Dornburgerstr. 159 & Vice Chairman
53 07743 Jena Amity Science, Technology & Innovation
54 Germany Foundation
55 [email protected] Block A, Amity Campus, Sector 125
56 Noida, UP 201303
India
[email protected]
57 Soil Biology ISSN: 1613–3382
58 ISBN: 978-3-642-02435-1 e-ISBN: 978-3-642-02436-8
59 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-02436-8
60 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
61 Library of Congress Control Number: 2009930361
62 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010
63 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
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65 reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication
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69 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not
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v
Foreword 75
Increases in the production of chemical substances and their release into the 76
environment have reached a stage where individuals and society in general are no 77
longer able to control their impact. The use and transformation of over 100,000 78
individual chemicals whose current locations are largely unknown has resulted 79
in intensive basic and applied research in this area. Some of these chemicals 80
are elements, especially heavy metals, which are found in various forms in the 81
environment. 82
The positions and classification of the chemical elements in the classical 83
periodic system (table) of the elements (PSE) do not enable us to infer how neces- 84
sary these elements are to organism function, or whether they are acutely or 85
chronically toxic to living organisms. This is due to the fact that the PSE is 86
based purely on the physiochemical properties of the elements. However, in the 87
past few years a “biological system of the elements” (BSE) has been established 88
that primarily considers aspects of basic biochemical and physiological research. 89
These include: 90
• The relationships between elements within individual organisms, expressed as 91
linear correlation coefficients 92
• The physiological functions of individual elements, paying attention to evolu- 93
tionary development during the emergence of organic life from the inorganic 94
environment 95
• The forms of individual elements and their compounds taken up by living 96
organisms.. 97
With respect to their effect on the flow of matter and of energy in the food chain, 98
plants represent an important link between the atmosphere and the soil on the one 99
hand and between consumers from the first to the highest order (animals and 100
humans) on the other. Frequently, pollutants are introduced into the food chain via 101
plants that have taken them up from the soil or the atmosphere, and these pollutants 102
often cause irreversible damage to individual organisms or to entire communities as 103
a result of accumulation and exclusion processes. Therefore highest priority on the 104
control of the influence on soil chemistry and microbial activities has to be given 105
in the future. 106
vi Foreword
The biological system of the elements (BSE) compiled from data on correlation analysis, the physi-
ological functions of the individual elements in living organisms, evolutionary development from the
inorganic environment, and the forms of the elements taken up by plants as neutral molecules or
charged ions. The elements H and Na perform various functions in biological systems, so they are
not conclusively fixed in the BSE. The ringed elements can only be summarized as groups of ele-
ments with similar physiological function at present, since there is a lack of correlation data on
them or these data are currently too imprecise. [From Markert B (1994) The biological system
of the elements (BSE) for terrestrial plants (glycophytes). Sci Total Environ 155:221–228].
107 Quantitatively, the uptake of substances is adequately characterized by the inten-
108 sity and scale of the uptake up to a particular point in time. For a defined nutrient,
109 the uptake by the plant is dependent on the amount of the nutrient in the medium
110 taken up and its availability. As a rule, the plant has no positive influence on
111 the supply, but it does have an effect on the material and spatial availability of the
112 nutrients. For example, from a material aspect, the nutrient availability can be
113 changed by modifying the pH of the soil solution (elimination of HO+ or HCO−
3 3
114 ions by the root), by the liberation of organic acids with chelating-like activity from
115 the root, or via the participation of microorganisms (mycorrhiza), as well as by the
116 effect of the release of HO+ and O at the root surface on the redox potential in the
3 2
117 soil. The most readily available elements are present in the soil solution as ions or
118 as soluble soil complexes. The least readily available are tightly bound to the soil
119 structure, for example as a secondary component of the crystal structure of primary
120 minerals. The most important sources of elements between these two extremes are
121 small particles that are loaded with metals and have large surface areas, such as
122 clay, sludge, and organic material. Taken together, all of this can be termed an
Foreword vii
“exchange complex”. Ion exchange, such as that between calcium and magnesium, 123
potassium, or hydrogen, can occur at the surface. 124
Thus, the intensity and the range of the uptake both influence the actual amount 125
of a specific element in the plant. Depending on the type of plant being studied, the 126
element species, and the specific location, one can differentiate between roughly 127
three kinds of uptake. In the ideal situation, there is a direct proportionality between 128
the amount of nutrients available and the amount taken up by the plant. In this case, 129
the specific elemental content of the plant reflects the concentration ratios in the 130
nutrient substrate. Thus, the chemical composition of the plant has an indicative 131
character. This association, which has been observed in a series of plants and for a 132
wide variety of elements, both in experiments and in the field, is being taken into 133
account more and more in practical applications, such as when prospecting for ore, 134
or when (usually low-level) plants are used for biomonitoring. Because of unfa- 135
vourable locations, many plants have developed the ability to enrich themselves 136
with high concentrations of individual elements, often regardless whether these 137
elements are physiologically useful or not. These plants are called accumulators. 138
For example, most Ericaceae have high concentrations of manganese, and beeches 139
have high levels of zinc. This accumulative behaviour, which may have genetically 140
predetermined origins rather than ones determined by location, makes it possible to 141
chemically fingerprint a very wide variety of plant types. The rejection or a reduced 142
uptake of individual elements occurs less frequently than the accumulation of 143
elements, but rejection behaviour has also been demonstrated for numerous plant 144
species. The reduction in concentration of an element in an organism can be the 145
result of complete or partial exclusion. 146
To advance the abovementioned scientific fields, a more integrative approach to 147
student education appears to be necessary. International exchanges and dialogue 148
about complex problems related to the toxicological effects of heavy metals from 149
the atmosphere and soils on organisms are of tremendous importance. The financial 150
resources needed to achieve these goals must be contributed by various national and 151
international governments. 152
International Graduate School Prof. Dr. Bernd Markert 153
Zittau, Germany 154
April 2009 155
ix
Preface 156
The volume Soil Heavy Metals was conceived during the summer of 2007 at an infor- 157
mal Indian–German get-together at Jena. We believe that brilliant ideas crop up 158
over either a cup of Indian tea or a jar of German beer! 159
All life on Earth depends on the photosynthetic activity of plants, which produce 160
oxygen and reduced carbon for all autotrophic and heterotrophic life. Most of the 161
nutrients needed by plants come from the soil, which is the outermost solid layer of 162
the Earth and is a combination of inorganic and organic materials. The quality of 163
the soil has a strong influence on the overall health of plants and their existence, 164
and the plant ecosystem controls our planet. Soils are certainly not static substrates; 165
they are dynamic biological systems that support microbe, plant and animal life. 166
The innumerable developments that have taken place in recent years in the field 167
covered by this book make a complete review impossible within the scope of a 168
single volume. Some of the more detailed points have been omitted for brevity; yet, 169
where conflicts do exist, contrasting viewpoints are presented. Time may change 170
these views, but it is the very nature of science to be in a continual state of flux and 171
for the errors of one generation to be amended by the next. 172
Human activities have dramatically changed the composition and organisation 173
of the soil on Earth. Industrial and urban wastes, in particular the uncontrolled 174
disposal of waste and the application of various substances to agricultural soils, 175
have resulted in the contamination of our ecosystem. Another oft-cited example 176
is mining activity, which has resulted in the deposition of unusually high concen- 177
trations of heavy metals onto the soil surface. Plant and soil microorganisms 178
must cope with the resulting elevated levels of heavy metals in the soil, and so 179
they have developed sophisticated techniques for surviving and coexisting in such 180
environments. 181
Soils are both an important reservoir of chemical elements and a living matrix, 182
as clearly described in Chap. 1 by Helwig Hohl and Ajit Varma. A definition of 183
heavy metals and their role in biological systems is provided by Klaus-J. Appenroth 184
in the following chapter. Soil microbial diversity in relation to heavy metals is 185
expressed in detail by Shwet Kamal, Ram Prasad and Ajit Varma in Chap. 3. The 186
uptake and effects of heavy metals on the plant detoxification cascade in the pres- 187
ence and absence of organic pollutants is then discussed by Ljudmila Ljubenova 188
and Peter Schröder, who show that there is a clear-cut interrelationship between 189
x Preface
190 inorganic and organic pollution. In the next chapter, Hermann Bothe, Marjana
191 Regvar, and Katarzyna Turnau introduce the biology of arbuscular mycorrhizal
192 fungi, and biochemical and molecular aspects of heavy metals and salt tolerance.
193 Analytical options and (im)possibilities relating to the trace element determina-
194 tion of environmental samples, placing special focus on different X-ray methods,
195 are critically reviewed by Katarina Vogel-Mikuš, Peter Kump, Marijan Necˇemer,
196 Primož Pelicon, Iztok Arcˇon, Paula Pongrac, Bogdan Povh and Marjana Rengvar
197 in Chap. 6.
198 In subsequent chapters, special attention is devoted to physiological and biochemi-
199 cal behaviour of different microbiological species, populations and communities.
200 The relationship between metal hyperaccumulation and glucosinolates is pre-
201 sented by Paula Pongrac, Roser Tolrà, Katarina Vogel-Mikuš, Charlotte
202 Poschenrieder, Juan Barceló and Marjana Regvar. The combined effects of heavy
203 metals and salinity on plants from various ecological groups are the focus of
204 Chap. 8, provided by Valentina Kholodova, Kirill Volkov and Vladimir Kuznetsov.
205 The use of the structure and functionality of the microbiological community as
206 indicators to evaluate the health of heavy metal polluted soils is then presented by
207 M. Belén Hinjosa, Roberto Garcia-Ruiz and José Carreira. Extra- and intracellular
208 mechanisms of heavy metal resistance by streptomycetes are explained by Erika
209 Kothe, Christian Dimpka, Götz Haferburg, Andre and Astrid Schmidt, and Eileen
210 Schütze. Chapter 11 gives an assessment of the relationship between soil enzymes
211 and heavy metals, as provided by Ayten Karaca, Sema Camci Cetin, Ozun Can
212 Turgay and Ridvan Kizilkaya. Effects of heavy metals on saprophytic soil fungi are
213 then discussed by Petr Baldrian, followed by a description of copper-containing
214 oxidases, their occurrence in soil microorganisms, and related properties and appli-
215 cations, by Harald Claus.
216 The analytical detection of the biomethylation of heavy metals in soil and ter-
217 restrial invertebrates is presented in Chap. 14 by Burkhard Knopf and Helmut
218 König, with special reference to Hg, Se, As and Bi. Andrea Zanuzzi and Angel Faz
219 Cano then describe the possibility of phytostabilizing lead-polluted sites using
220 native plants. The next chapter describes the impact of heavy metals on sugarcane,
221 and is presented by D.V. Yadav, Radha Jain and R.K. Rai. In Chap. 17, the effects
222 of the activities of earthworms on the availability and removal of heavy metal in
223 soils is discussed by Ayten Karaca, Ridvan Kizilkaya, Oguz Can Turgay and Sema
224 Camci Cetin. Then the phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils is pre-
225 sented by T.J. Purakayastha and P.K. Chhonkar. Finally, Preeti Saxena and Neelam
226 Misra focus their attention on the remediation possibilities associated with heavy
227 metal contaminated tropical land.
228 In this volume, we have made great efforts to throw light on some aspects and
229 mechanisms of how microorganisms interact with biological systems and allow
230 them to survive in contaminated soil. An attempt has been made to highlight the
231 mechanisms that prevent uptake or allow the detoxification of heavy metals from
232 contaminated soil.
233 We would like to express our deep appreciation to each contributor for his/her
234 work, patience and attention to detail during the entire production process. It is