Soil and Water Contamination: from molecular to catchment scale

402 Pages·2007·5.461 MB·English

by  Marcel van der Perk

SOIL AND WATER CONTAMINATION
BALKEMA – Proceedings and Monographs in
Engineering, Water and Earth Sciences
Soil and Water Contamination
from molecular to catchment scale
Marcel van der Perk
Department of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
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Front cover: M.C. Escher’s “Puddle”
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Copyright © 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
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Published by: Taylor & Francis/Balkema
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ISBN 0-203-96357-1 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN10: 0-415-40943-8 ISBN 13: 978-0-415-40943-8
Contents
PREFACE XI
PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO SOIL AND WATER CONTAMINATION 1
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 Historical perspective 3
1.2 Environmental pollution 4
1.3 Environmental pollutants 5
1.3.1 Classification of pollutants 5
1.3.2 Background concentrations 6
1.3.3 Anthropogenic sources 8
1.4 Ecological impacts 8
1.5 Spatial and temporal variability and the concept of scale 11
1.6 Outline and rationale of this book 13
Exercises 14
2 BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Units of analysis 15
2.3 Activity 17
2.4 Background thermodynamics 19
2.5 Phases and phase transitions 21
2.5.1 Phases 21
2.5.2 Thermodynamic considerations on phase transitions 21
2.5.3 Partition coefficient 22
2.5.4 Partitioning between dissolved phase and adsorbed phase 23
2.5.5 Fugacity 25
2.6 Chemical equilibrium and kinetics 28
2.6.1 Equilibrium 28
2.6.2 Kinetics 31
2.7 Dissolution–precipitation reactions 33
2.8 Complexation 34
2.9 Acid–base reactions 36
2.9.1 Introduction 36
2.9.2 Acids 36
2.9.3 Bases 37
2.9.4 Buffering 38
2.10 Redox reactions 40
2.10.1 Introduction 40
2.10.2 Oxidation state 40
VI Soil and Water Contamination
2.10.3 Redox potential 41
2.10.4 Redox reactions and pe 44
2.10.5 pH–Eh diagrams 45
2.11 Further reading on basic chemistry 45
Exercises 47
3 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARTMENTS 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Soil 52
3.2.1 Definition of soil 52
3.2.2 Sources of soil pollution 54
3.2.3 Soil water 55
3.2.4 Soil erosion 56
3.2.5 Physico-chemical conditions in soil 57
3.3 Groundwater 59
3.3.1 Definition of groundwater 59
3.3.2 Sources of groundwater pollution 60
3.3.3 Physico-chemical conditions in groundwater 61
3.4 Surface water 62
3.4.1 Definition of surface water 62
3.4.2 Bed sediments 62
3.4.3 Sources of surface water pollution 63
3.4.4 Physico-chemical conditions in surface water 65
3.5 Further reading on soils, groundwater, and surface water 67
Exercises 68
PART II SOURCES, ROLE, AND BEHAVIOUR OF SUBSTANCES IN
SOIL AND WATER 69
4 SOLID PHASE CONSTITUENTS 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Inorganic components 72
4.2.1 Composition and formation 72
4.2.2 Aluminium and iron oxides/hydroxides 74
4.2.3 Clay minerals 74
4.3 Organic components 79
4.3.1 Composition and formation 79
4.3.2 Interaction with the aqueous phase 82
4.3.3 Interaction with mineral surfaces 83
4.3.4 Decomposition of organic matter 84
4.4 Sorption by soils and sediments 86
Exercises 87
5 MAJOR DISSOLVED PHASE CONSTITUENTS 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.2 Sodium 92
5.3 Potassium 94
5.4 Calcium 95
5.5 Magnesium 96
5.6 Iron 97
5.7 Manganese 99
Contents VII
5.8 Aluminium 101
5.9 Chloride 103
5.10 Inorganic carbon 105
5.11 Sulphate and sulphide 108
Exercises 110
6 NUTRIENTS 113
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Nitrogen 115
6.2.1 Environmental role and occurrence of nitrogen 115
6.2.2 Nitrogen cycle 116
6.2.3 External sources and sinks 118
6.3 Phosphorus 119
6.3.1 Environmental role and occurrence of phosphorus 119
6.3.2 Phosphorus cycle 121
6.3.3 External sources and sinks 122
Exercises 123
7 HEAVY METALS 125
7.1 Introduction 125
7.2 Zinc 128
7.3 Copper 129
7.4 Lead 130
7.5 Cadmium 131
7.6 Nickel 132
7.7 Chromium 132
7.8 Mercury 133
7.9 Arsenic 135
Exercises 136
8 RADIONUCLIDES 139
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Natural radionuclides 143
8.2.1 Terrestrial radionuclides 143
8.2.2 Cosmogenic radionuclides 146
8.3 Man-made radionuclides 148
8.3.1 Production and releases 148
8.3.2 Accidental releases 151
8.3.3 Nuclear weapons 152
8.3.4 Environmental behaviour and effects of selected man-made radionuclides 153
Exercises 154
9 ORGANIC POLLUTANTS 157
9.1 Introduction 157
9.2 Petroleum and derivatives 161
9.3 Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 162
9.4 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 163
9.5 Chlorinated hydrocarbons 165
9.5.1 Aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons 165
9.5.2 Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) 166
9.5.3 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) 167
VIII Soil and Water Contamination
9.5.4 Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) 167
9.5.5 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 168
9.6 Dioxins 168
Exercises 169
PART III TRANSPORT PROCESSES OF SUBSTANCES IN
SOIL AND WATER 171
10 SYSTEMS AND MODELS 173
10.1 A systems approach 173
10.2 The role of mathematical models 177
10.3 Classification of mathematical models 180
Exercises 181
11 SUBSTANCE TRANSPORT 183
11.1 Mass balance 183
11.2 Advection 188
11.2.1 Advection equation 188
11.2.2 Load calculation and mixing 195
11.3 Diffusion and dispersion 196
11.3.1 Molecular diffusion 196
11.3.2 Turbulent diffusion and mechanical dispersion 196
11.3.3 Longitudinal dispersion 200
11.3.4 Transverse dispersion 205
11.3.5 Numerical dispersion 207
11.4 Multi-fluid flow 210
Exercises 214
12 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION 217
12.1 Introduction 217
12.2 Transport equation 217
12.3 Bottom shear stress 218
12.4 Sediment deposition 222
12.5 Sediment erosion 225
12.6 Long-term soil erosion and deposition 226
Exercises 229
13 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION 231
13.1 Introduction 231
13.2 Sorption equilibrium and kinetics 232
13.3 Biological production and degradation 239
Exercises 245
14 GAS EXCHANGE 249
14.1 Henry’s law 249
14.2 Thin film model 250
14.3 Reaeration 253
14.4 Gas exchange controlled on the water side 255
14.5 Gas exchange controlled on the air side 256
14.6 Gas exchange in the subsurface environment 257
Exercises 259
Contents IX
15 MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION 261
15.1 Introduction 261
15.2 Model performance criteria 265
15.3 Considerations affecting model choice 270
Exercises 271
PART IV PATTERNS OF SUBSTANCES IN SOIL AND WATER 273
16 PATTERNS IN THE SOIL AND IN THE VADOSE ZONE 275
16.1 Introduction 275
16.2 Variation due to clay and organic matter content 276
16.3 Lateral variation 279
16.3.1 Introduction 279
16.3.2 Effects of fertiliser and pesticide application 280
16.3.3 Effects of atmospheric deposition 282
16.3.4 Effects of soil erosion and deposition 283
16.4 Vertical variation 289
16.4.1 Introduction 289
16.4.2 Effects of leaching 290
16.4.3 Effects of contamination history 292
Exercises 295
17 PATTERNS IN GROUNDWATER 297
17.1 Introduction 297
17.2 Hydrological systems analysis 297
17.3 Hydrochemical systems analysis 300
17.4 Effects of lateral variation in contaminant inputs 302
17.5 Effects of temporal variation in contaminant inputs 304
17.6 Effects of dispersion 306
17.7 Effects of retardation 309
17.8 Effects of acid–base reactions 311
17.9 Effects of redox reactions 313
Exercises 320
18 PATTERNS IN SURFACE WATER 321
18.1 Introduction 321
18.2 Spatial variation in river water composition 322
18.2.1 Effects of diffuse sources 322
18.2.2 Effects of point sources 324
18.3 Temporal variation in river water composition 327
18.3.1 Short-term dynamics 327
18.3.2 Hysteresis response of dissolved concentrations to changes in discharge 327
18.3.3 Release of old water 330
18.3.4 Sediment dynamics 331
18.3.5 Concentration rating curves 332
18.3.6 Significance of hydrological events for substance transport 336
18.3.7 Seasonal dynamics of nutrient concentrations 336
18.3.8 Long-term dynamics 337
18.4 Variation in lake water composition 341
18.4.1 Role of lakes in catchment sediment and nutrient budgets 341
18.5.2 Lateral variation 342