Socioeconomic Transition and Wildlife Conservation in the Indian Trans himalaya

8 Pages·2000·5.6 MB·

by  Charudutt Mishra

SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
INTHEINDIANTRANS-HIMALAYA
1
CharuduttMishra2,3
Key words: management, protected area, policy, livestock, Uncia uncia,
Canis lupus
—
The founding postulate ofthe preservationist conservat—ion philosophy that local human
communitiescause landdegradationandbiodiversityloss isincreasinglybeingquestionedfor
its scientific validity. Thatthispostulate maynothold in manycases isbeing used, interalia, in
support ofcalls formore inclusive conservation policies in developing countries. Such policies
would allow, oreven encourage, consumptivehuman use ofnatural resources within designated
wildlife-protected areas. However, the latterapproach again rests upon the assumption that local
human communities and their impacts on natural resources are constant. The present paper
questions this assumption using a case study from a hitherto isolated region of the Indian
Trans-Himalaya.Idescribetheongoingsocio-economicfluxinanagropastoralBuddhistcommunity
dependent upon the resources ofa protected area, and the impacts ofthis transition on wildlife
conservation. The analysis shows radical changes in the local economy and land use in the last
decade, that ultimately proceed from extrinsic factors (market forces, changes in Government
policy). Immediate conservation problems have proximately arisen from both extrinsic
(uncontrolled tourism) as well as intrinsic (escalation of livestock stocking rate) changes. The
analysis underscores the need for conservation policies to be sensitive to the transient nature of
local human communities, even in seemingly isolated protected areas.
Introduction hostility gets further aggravated in the face of
serious human-wildlife conflicts in many
The thrust ofIndia’s conservation policy protectedareas, andthe subsequentbureaucratic
has been preservationist, wherein emphasis has apathy faced by the local people (Guha 1997,
been placed on minimising or eliminating Mishra 1997a, Saberwal 1997, Saberwal et al.
consumptivehumanuseswithinareasdesignated 1994) Not surprisingly then, as in many other
for protection of wildlife. Despite such an developing countries (Prins 1992), the merits of
exclusionary official policy, more than 80 % of the Indian preservationist approach are being
Indian wildlife reserves are inhabited by local increasingly questioned on social, economic,
human communities that continue to use the ethical, political, pragmatic and even ecological
natural resources in them, albeit within grounds. Critics have contended that the
state-imposed restrictions (Kothari et al. 1989). preservationist policy has been based on
Such restrictions on traditional resource use scientifically unsubstantiated assumptions that
following the creation of protected areas are localhumancommunitiescauselanddegradation
responsible forlocalhostilityandthe absence of andthelossofbiodiversity(Saberwal 1996,Guha
local support for conservation efforts (Kothari 1997). There isanincreasingcall for 'rethinking
et al 1995, Guha 1997, Saberwal 1997). This conservation’ and embracing a more inclusive
'AcceptedJune,1998 policy, which, in theory, allows forbiodiversity
^CentreforEcologicalResearchandConservation, conservationalongsidelocalhumanresourceuse
3076/5,IV,CrossGokulamPark, (e.g. Kothari et al. 1995, Saberwal 1996).
Mysore570002,Karnataka,India. However, the latter thesis again rests upon an
3Presentaddress:TropicalNatureConservationandVertebrate
EcologyGroup,WageningenUniversity,69Bomsesteeg,6708 important yet unsubstantiated assumption that
PDWageningen,TheNetherlands. viewslocalhumancommunities,theirlife-styles,
JOURNAL BOMBAYNATURAL HISTORYSOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 25
,
1
SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
andthe magnitude oftheirimpacts, as static and least represented biogeographic zones in the
immune to change (Mishra and Rawat 1998). It Indian protected area network (Rodgers and
is this assumption that is questioned here. The Panwar 1988).
aim is neither to denounce nor advocate the The Spiti region in the Trans-Himalayan
demands for ‘democratic’ multiple use policies; Lahaul andSpitidist. (Himachal Pradesh) spans
under the complex sociopolitical situations in an area of 12,210 km2 in the catchment area of
most developing countries, strict adherence to theSpitiriver,withahumanpopulationof 9,59
either stand will prove counter-productive for (in 1991;DirectorateofEconomicsandStatistics
wildlifeconservation. Thepurposeofthispaper, 1996)whichislargelyBuddhist(Kaushik 1993).
instead, istoshowthatirrespectiveoftheofficial Spiti had no wildlife reserves until the last
conservationpolicy(1)localhumancommunities decade. The establishment of the 675 km2 Pin
even in the remotest regions of the develop- Valley National Park (31° 44' to 32° IT N lat.,
ing world are undergoing rapid social and land and 77° 45' to 78° 06' E long.) in 1987, and the
use transition, (2) this transition has potentially 1400 km2 Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary (32° 5' to
important consequences for wildlife conserva- 32° 30' N lat. and 78° 1' to 78° 32' E long.) in
tion, and following from this, (3) conservation 1992, has resulted in 17% of Spiti’s land area
policies need to be extremely sensitive to these being designated as wildlife reserve. The
changes. protected area boundaries, however, are only
Focusing on three agropastoral Buddhist nominal, considering they were drawn around
villages (80 households) dependent upon the existing settlements and villages whose
resourcesofaprotectedarea,thispaperdescribes inhabitants continue using these areas for
the ongoing socio-economic transition in the grazing, fuel and fodder collection.
Spiti region (31° 42' to 32° 58' N lat. and 77° Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary lies in the
21' to 78° 35' E long.) of the Indian northern catchment of Spiti and is flanked by
Trans-Himalaya. Locatedclosetothepolitically Ladakh to the north and Tibet to the east. The
sensitive Sino-Indian border, in difficult Sanctuary, like the rest ofthe Trans-Himalaya,
mountainous terrain, Spiti remained a remote lies inthe rain shadow ofthe GreaterHimalaya,
m
area with restricted geographical as well as and ranges in altitude from c. 3,600 to
m
administrative access until 1992. In this paper, 6,700 abovemsl.Temperaturesrangebetween
I specifically document the socio-economic -30°C to 3°C in the winter, and between 1°C to
trends in the region over the last 25 years, and 28°C insummer(Rana 1994). Vegetation inthe
subsequently discuss their consequences for area has been broadly classified as dry alpine
wildlife conservation. The urgent research and steppe (Champion and Seth 1968). The
management inputs required for conservation Sanctuary is flanked by 13 villages along its
both at the local and regional levels are also southernboundary inhabitedby anagropastoral
outlined. Buddhist community, whose agricultural
activities are restricted to the short growing
Study Area season between May and September. Barley
Hordeum vulgare and green pea Pisumsativum
The Trans-Himalayanregionincludes the are the main crops. Livestock includes goat,
high altitude plateau of Tibet and the Tibetan sheep,cattle,yak,dzomo(femalehybridofcattle
marginal mountains, anarea ofover2.6 million and yak), donkey and horse. Goat, cattle and
km2. The c. 186,000 km2 within India, despite dzomo are used for both milk and meat. Sheep
its conservation significance, forms one ofthe are used for wool and yaks for ploughing, in
26 JOURNAL. BOMBAYNATURAL HISTORYSOCIETY. 97(1). APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
addition to meat. Donkeys are used as draught Results
animals, and raised partly for trade. Horses, Human population and development
apart frombeing used for religious ceremonies, The human population in the thirteen
are raised mainly for trade (Mishra 1997a). villages bordering Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary
The mammalian fauna of the Sanctuary increased only marginally (at an annual growth
includes snow leopard Uncia uncia wolfCanis rate of 0.09%) between 1971 and 1991 (1985
,
lupus redfox Vulpesvulpes,paleweaselMustela people in 1991; data for 1996 not available).
,
altaica, stone marten Mcirtesfoina Himalayan Likewise,between 1971 and 1996,thethreestudy
,
mouse hare Ochotona sp., bharal Pseudois villages saw a total population increase ofonly
nayaur and ibex Capra ibex. 6.5%, an average annual growth rate of0.25%
,
(Mishra 1997a). Children <18 years comprise
Methods 49% of the present population of the study
villages. Literacyratehas doubled(from22%to
Unpublished archival records of the 48%) in the last 25 years. Presently, 31% ofthe
State Government were scrutinised (see Mishra adult males (n = 91), and 26% of the adult
1997a for details of sources) for information females(n= 100)areliterate. Intheschool-going
relating to human population and past literacy agegroup(c. 5 to 18years),there is97%literacy
rates, livestock population, and developmental (n = 127). Among other indicators of
changes in the region over the last 25 years. development, thisperiodhas seen an increase in
Ofthe 13 villages surrounding Kibber Wildlife the number ofschools and the electrification of
Sanctuary,three,whichtogethercomprised 19% allthreestudyvillages(Table 1).Twoofthethree
ofthe population living around the park, were villages, Gete and Tashigang, which earlier had
selected as samples for the study (for details no roads, have been connected by motorable
see Mishra 1997a). This included Kibber, the roads.
largest in the area (316 inhabitants), and two Agriculture
small villages nearby, Gete (36) and Tashigang The numberofpeopleperunitofirrigated
(24). Structured interviews were conducted land has remained nearly constant over the last
with at least one member from each household 25 years(Table 1), withthecurrentaverage land
in the three villages, to obtain information holding perhousehold at 1.13 ha. The cropping
regarding present family size and literacy, pattern,however,haschangedinthelastdecade.
livestockandlandholdings,andpastandcurrent Prior to 1986, agriculture was for subsistence.
agricultural practices. Human and livestock
Table
1
population growth rates (r) were calculated PATTERNSINSOMEINDICATORSOF
using the exponential growth curve equation DEVELOPMENTOVERTHE LAST25YEARSIN
(Nt = N0ert where Nt is the population at time t, KTIHBRBEEERSWAIMLPDLLIEFDEVSIALNLCAGTEUSAROFY
N0 is the starting population, and e the base of
naturallogarithms). Cropyieldperunitareawas Indicator 1971 1996
obtained for different crops by interviewing No.ofmedicalcarecentres 1 1
two experienced farmers, and the lower limitof No.ofpostoffices 1 1
No.ofschools 4
the reported range used to obtain a conser- 1
Irrigatedland(ha) 83 91*
vative estimate of crop production. Casual Peopleperhairrigatedland 4.2 4.1
interviews and observations during the course No.ofvillageswithelectricity 0 3
offieldworkyieldedinformationontourismand No.ofvillagesconnectedbymotorableroad 1 3
its impacts. *in 1987
JOURNAL, BOMBAYNATURAL HISTORYSOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 27
SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
The main crops were barley and a local variety 3.2% (10,458 heads in 1988 to 1 1,881 heads in
of pea (the latter largely for supplementing 1992). In the last 25 years, the ratio oflivestock
livestock feed), cultivated on two-thirds and to human population in the study villages has
one-thirdofthe landholdingrespectively. Since increased from 1.85 (the year 1971, in Gete and
1986, however, one-third ofthe land holding is Tashigang) to 2.80 (1996, in all three villages).
cultivated for green peas, one-third for barley, In terms of herd composition, Gete and
and the remaining is partly planted with local Tashigang(dataforKibberfortheyear 1971 were
pea and partly left fallow. The entire harvest of not available) show an increase in all livestock
green pea is sold as a cash crop. The estimated species between 1971 and 1987, though the
annualproduction ofgreenpeaperhousehold is maximum increase was accounted for by goat
2,587kg,whichtranslatesinto apercapitaprofit and sheep (42%). After 1987, the number of
(corrected for transport costs) of US$ 210 per donkeysandcowIdzomodeclined,whiletheother
year (1994-95 conversion rate of 1 US$ = 31.4 speciescontinuedtoincrease(Table2).InKibber,
IndianRupees;WorldBank 1996).Theestimated the trend after 1987 was almost the same with
annual production of barley per household is all the species except cowIdzomo continuing to
currently 1,294 kg. increase. Thus, in the last ten years, the
This change in cropping pattern has population of cowIdzomo in all the sampled
significantly affected an age-old barter trade Table2
between the inhabitants ofthe study area and a LIVESTOCKPOPULATIONTRENDSOVER25YEARS
semi-nomadicpastoralcommunity,the Changpa INTHREESAMPLEDVILLAGES(DATAPOOLEDFOR
THEVILLAGESGETEANDTASHIGANG)OF
ofLadakh. Changpa herders have been coming KIBBERWILDLIFESANCTUARY
into Spiti for at least a few centuries (Kapadia
1996).Theycomeinsummerwiththeirlivestock GeteandTashigang Kibbervillage*
(> 1,000goatandsheep)whenthehighmountain Species 1971* 1987 1996 1987 1996
passes c 5,600m)becomenegotiable. Themain Yak 9 14 29 28 110
( . Cattle/
trade involved barley, which earlier was in dzomo 13 32 28 113 98
surplus, and was bartered with the Changpa Horse 6 11 18 34 57
largely in exchange for wool, salt and rugs. Donkey 11 17 11 93 114
Sheep/
Owing to the replacement of barley with the goat 76 101 137 322 452
commercially valuable green pea, and the Total 115 175 223 590 831
resulting absence of surplus barley, the
development of a market economy, and the *datafor1971 werenotavailable
improvement in transportation, communication, villages has declined marginally, while yak has
and supplies in Spiti, this trade is on the verge increased more than threefold (Table 2). Goat
ofbreakdown. However, the trade continues for and sheep again accounted for the maximum
Spiti horses and donkeys, which are still in increase (57 %) during this period.
demand with the Changpa.
Tourism
Livestock Prior to 1992, foreign nationals were not
The annual growth rate of livestock allowed in Spiti, and even non-domicile Indians
holdings in the study villages increased from needed to obtain special permits from the State
2.6% (between 1971 and 1987) to 3.5% after Government to enter the region. With the
1987 (up to 1996; Mishra 1997a). The growth relaxation of Government policy since 1992,
rate oflivestockthroughout Spiti after 1987 was there has been a sudden growth in tourism.
28 JOURNAL, BOMBAYNATURAL HISTORYSOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
Kibber, one of the study villages, had three and around the National Park area; Mishra
functional hotels and one more under 1997b). A study estimates an annual per capita
construction when this study was conducted, as extractionof217kgofshrubsanddung(forfuel),
opposedtononebefore 1993.Thesesmallhotels andfodder(forwintersupplementalfeeding) by
(3-4 rooms), catering tobothIndian andforeign the resident population from Pin Valley
tourists, arerunbylocalvillagers.Manyvillages (Bhatnagar 1996). Itis also prudentto note that,
ofSpiti now have makeshift hotels. The tourist facedwithmodernization,othertrans-Himalayan
inflow is restricted to between June and Buddhist communities are undergoing rapid
September. Between June and August 1996, a population growth following a breakdown of
hotel owner reported a net profit ofc. US$ 637 social population regulation mechanisms, and
(Chering Dorje, Kibber, pers. comm. 1996). this might happen in Spiti as well (Goldstein
Demandforlocalguidesanddonkeysbytrekking 1981,Foxetal. 1994,MishraandHumbert-Droz
touristsalsocausesasubstantialinflowofmoney 1998).
at the local level, which could not, however, be
quantified. Changesinagricultureand animalhusbandry
The most significant socio-economic
Discussion change in the region during the last decade
has been the shift from a barter-based sub-
Humanpopulation sistence economy, to a market economy,
Most habitat change and biodiversity loss resulting from, inter alia changes in cropping
,
in developing countries has been attributed to pattern. The return per household from green
socio-economic change in growing rural peaharvest, thenewcashcrop, isalmostashigh
populations (Machlis 1992). The Indian as the average annual per capita income for
population, 74% of which is rural, has indeed Himachal Pradesh (US$ 248, 1994-95; World
grown atan annualrate of2.17% inthepasttwo Bank 1996).
decades, yielding a current density of close to Along with agriculture, there is indication
300 per sq. km (Repetto 1994). In contrast, the ofcommercialisationofanimalhusbandryaswell
absolute human density of Spiti is very low (livestock trade was earlier restricted to barter
(0.78 per sq. km). The unusual absence of with the Changpa). This is evidenced in the
populationgrowthcouldlargelybeaconsequence three-fold increase of yaks in the last decade,
ofthe relatively intact system ofprimogenitary whicharenowpartlybeingraisedinthevillages
inheritance overmostofSpiti (andpolyandry in ofKibberWildlife Sanctuaryforselling in other
one region) where the younger siblings become areasofSpiti(ChhewangD. Zangpo, PinValley,
celibate monks (Mamgain 1975, Punjab pers. comm. 1996).Thiscontrastswithotheryak
Government 1994). The stable population size rearing communities inthe Himalaya, where the
seemstohavestabilisedthepressureforfuelwood yakpopulation is known to be declining rapidly
on the protected area. However, it is important (Negi and Gadgil 1997, J.L. Fox pers. comm.
to keep in mind that most ofthe area in Spiti is 1996.). Between 1988 and 1992, the yak
uninhabited due to its inhospitable cold desert population of Spiti increased from .786 to 897
mountainous environment. Consequently, 31% heads.
of Spiti’s present population is concentrated in Livestock of the study villages graze in
and around the two protected areas, and is the Sanctuary area nearly throughout the year,
dependentonthemforgrazingandfuelwood(Pin thoughtheirdietissupplementedbystallfeeding
Valley has a human population of 1500 inside in winter. This supplemental forage is partly
JOURNAL, BOMBAYNATURAL HISTORYSOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000 29
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SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
collected during the growing season from the Uncontrolled tourism
Sanctuary area, and partly from the cropfields. Uncontrolled tourism in wildlife reserves
In addition, the State Government has initiated has usually resulted in conservation problems
a scheme to provide supplemental feed at (Budowski 1976, deGroot 1983, Kenchington
subsidised rates. Given the present trend and 1989). Kibber presently lacks even a record of
the augmentedabilitytopurchase supplemental the number of tourists visiting the Sanctuary.
feed, livestock holdings are likely to continue With the sudden development of tourism, the
growinginthenearfuture.Theincreasinglivestock age-old trade route between Kibber and Ladakh
stockingrateseemstobe intensifyingthepressure (used by the Changpa c. 125 km) has now
;
ontheprotectedarearesources forfodder. become a popular trekking route. This route
Escalating livestock stocking rate is a passes along wetlands in Ladakh that are
countrywide phenomenon in India, the last two important breeding sites for water birds,
censuses indicating a 1.2% annual growth rate including rare and threatened species (Mishra
(419 million in 1982 to 445 million in 1987). and Humbert-Droz 1998). A ratherconspicuous
With67% wildlife sanctuaries and83%national impact ofthis tourism has been the pollution of
parks subjecttolivestockgrazing(Kotharietal this route with discarded garbage (including
.
1989), the urgency forevaluating the impacts of non-degradable metal cans and polythene),
livestock on wildlife resources is obvious. In especially around about 15 camping sites.
Kibber, the increase in stocking rate (together Inaddition,KibberWildlifeSanctuary,like
withpooranti-predatorylivestockmanagement) some other regions of Spiti, has deposits of
seems to be the main reason behind the recent nautiloid,balamnite,andammonitefossils(Y.V.
escalation in instances oflivestock depredation Bhatnagar, pers. comm. 1997). Locals reported
by large carnivores (the snow leopard and the that fossils were being removed from the area
wolf; Mishra 1997a). Even now, livestock even before Spiti was opened to tourists.
outnumber bharal, the dominant wild ungulate However, this was confined to geologists and
and natural prey of the wild carnivores, by an amateur collectors. Tourism has now created a
order ofmagnitude. To reduce this depredation, market for fossils, which is causing a rapid
villagers have been killing the wolf, and depletionofthefossilreservesofKibberWildlife
elsewhere, I have expressed concern that Sanctuary and elsewhere in Spiti. Depending
persecutionofthesnowleopardislikelytobegin uponits size and quality, a fossil may fetch US$
unless specific research and management 3 to USS 15. I could not, however, assess the
measures are undertaken to understand and magnitudeofthistrade. Theneedforaculturally
reduce this conflict (Mishra 1997a). and ecologically well designedtourismplan for
At a broader level, there is a need for Spitiisapparent, andhasalreadybeenexpressed
assessing the impact of grazing on plant (Kaushik 1993, 1994).
communities and evaluatingthe forage relations
between livestock and wild herbivores. The Conclusions
potential for regulating livestock stocking rates
andrangeusetoenhanceconservationobjectives Spiti remained geographically as well as
has long been recognised (e.g., Anderson and politically remote and isolated until 1992, and
Scherzinger 1975, Willms etal. 1980), andsuch the so far intact social population regulation
studies are a pre-requisite to designing effective mechanisms have kept the local human
multiple-use management policies for Indian population under control. However, a rapid
protected areas. socio-economic transition is in progress,
30 JOURNAL, BOMBAYNATURAL HISTORYSOCIETY, 97(1), APR. 2000
SOCIOECONOMICTRANSITIONANDWILDLIFECONSERVATION
exemplified by improvements in transporta- transition in socio-economy and landuse in local
tion, increase in literacy, changes in cropping human communities can result in complex
pattern(theadoptionofacashcrop),breakdown conservation problems. Conservation policies
ofbarter trade, expansion oflivestock holdings, therefore, ought to bear in mind the transient
and a sudden development of an unplanned natureoflocalhumancommunitiesresidingeven
tourism industry. This is ultimately driven by in seemingly remote protected areas.
far-reaching extrinsic factors such as the
influence of commercial markets and changes Acknowledgements
in Government policy. The transition from a
subsistence (barter-based) economy to a market I thank Dr. K. Ullas Karanth, the Wildlife
economy, and changes in land use in Kibber Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, and the
WildlifeSanctuary,haveresultedinconservation NetherlandsFoundationfortheAdvancementof
problems such as the escalation of Tropical Research (WOTRO), a body residing
human-wildlifeconflict(livestockdepredationby undertheNetherlandsOrganizationforScientific
wild carnivores), increased pressure on the Research (NWO) for financial support. My
protected area for fodder, pollution, and the gratitudefortechnicalsupporttotheDepartment
depletion of fossil reserves. These have ofForest Farming and Conservation, Himachal
proximately been brought about by intrinsic Pradesh, and the Director, Wildlife Institute of
(escalating livestock stocking rates) as well as India. I thank Y.V. Bhatnagar, K. Bhatnagar, T.
extrinsic (tourism) factors. Dorje, Dr. J.L. Fox, L. Gyalson, N. Manjrekar,
This paper joins a growing body of and B.S. Rana, for discussions; Dr. S.P. Goyal
literature documenting the significant influence andDr.A.J.T.Johnsinghforencouragement,and
ofmarketforceseveninrelativelyremoteregions Dr. R.S. Chundawat, Dr. S.N. Mishra,
of the developing world (e.g. Goldstein 1981, Madhusudan Katti, and T.R.S. Raman for
Goldstein andBeall 1989, Fox etal. 1994, Negi comments. The contribution of M.D.
and Gadgil 1997, Mishra and Humbert-Droz Madhusudan in restructuring the paper is
1998). It further shows that the resultant gratefullyacknowledged.
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