Social Class, Solipsism, and Contextualism

27 Pages·2012·0.25 MB·English

PsychologicalReview ©2012AmericanPsychologicalAssociation
2012,Vol.119,No.3,546–572 0033-295X/12/$12.00 DOI:10.1037/a0028756
Social Class, Solipsism, and Contextualism:
How the Rich Are Different From the Poor
Michael W. Kraus Paul K. Piff, Rodolfo Mendoza-Denton,
UniversityofIllinois,Urbana-Champaign Michelle L. Rheinschmidt, and Dacher Keltner
UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
Socialclassisshapedbyanindividual’smaterialresourcesaswellasperceptionsofrankvis-a`-visothers
insociety,andinthisarticle,weexaminehowclassinfluencesbehavior.Diminishedresourcesandlower
rankcreatecontextsthatconstrainsocialoutcomesforlower-classindividualsandenhancecontextualist
ers. oadly. toenned’esnlcifieeso—uttchoamtiess,.aIfnoccuosntoranset,xatebrunnadl,aunntcroesnotruorlcleasblaensdoceilaelvfaotercdersaannkdcortehaetericnodnivteixdtusatlhsawtheonhinafnlcueenthcee
blished br pise,rasnoninaldfivreideduoalmisstiocffuopcupsero-nclaosnse’insdoiwvinduinatlesrannadlsgtiavteesr,isgeoatolss,omlioptsiivsatitciosnosc,iaanldcoegmnoittiivoenste.nGdueindceidesb—ytthhaist
one of its allied puot to be disseminat ftscKerhoaexinmypttuwseeaxowlttirossodtrsaok:art,enhsdwoeccroesinoaidslnliiedpdctislaevaiirsisledtsdi9u,c.ashtloesycn.pidooNeetnhoccevoiseneelossmpsahrinecaddpsietcraetttilhuoeesnv,sasinenatlefnq,edmupaeiplmriictrpyeiclp,iatccliauoetlnitvosuinrdoesef,nftschooeercicsraooelnsccecioaaelgrrcnnehiinntvigioinrnhooonwtmheecrnlta,ssoasc-nbidoa-srpeeodlalitctiioocnna--l
on or d is n
al Associatidual user an FitIzngwerhaladtinsonteodwtoknhoiswfnriteonbdeEarnneasptoHcreympihnaglwcoanyvtehrasta“tiTohne,Fri.cShcaortet vsuidbusatal’nscesoocfisaolcicallaslsifeis(waeacltohn,teexdtucraotoiotend,winorkb)oathndththeeminadtievriida-l
ogicdivi differentfromthepoor.”Hemingway’sresponse:“Yes,theyhave ual’sconstrualofhisorherclassrank,andisacoreaspectofhow
Psycholof the in mdiofIfrteergemoneto.snFewyoi.rt”hmouotresathyainng1t0h0atytehaersl,ivseoscioalfstchieenrtiicshtsahnadvepokonroawrne hcceoengotnrriatlisvhaeergptuhamitnteeknrsntsoisfamtthhoaetngsseollcfoiwaalnecdr-lacrsleaslsascteoisnntdteoixvttishdeuelaislcosi—ctiraecllhiwaarboalrceltdes.roiOczieuadrl
n e
caus that social class is a profound dimension of social life (e.g., byacontextual,externally-orientedcognitiveandrelationalorien-
merinal Durkheim, 1802; S. T. Fiske & Markus, 2011; Kohn, 1969; tation to the world—and upper-class individuals—characterized
y the Ahe perso MFrayrbkeursg,&&KiMtaayrakmusa,,22000131;;MStaerpxh&enEs,nHgealms,e1d8a4n8i,/1M97a3r;kSuste,pBheerngs-, btoytahesowlioprslidst.icG,uiniddeidvidbuyatlhisitsicancaolgynsiitsi,vweeanrdevrieelwatiosenvaelroarliesnpteactiifoinc
hted by for t seineckee,r,re&seaErlcohulh,a2s00sh9o;wWnebtheart, 1so9c5i8a)l.cWlaistshiinnfplusyecnhcoeslogaicdailvesrcsie- pcererndiinctgiohnoswanpdeothpeleefmropmiricuaplpleirt-eraantudrelsowtheery-clhaasvsecionnstpeixrtesdthcoinnk-
yrigolel array of domains that include aesthetic preferences (Snibbe & about the self, perceive the social world, and relate to others. In
opd s Markus, 2005), language (Bernstein, 1971), physical health (e.g., this review, we focus on upper- and lower-class individuals, re-
This document is chis article is intende A(atrthheend.seedgplsep.eo,cronoDeofsgitirenne.anditAlto.eii,nvrF1t,gehi9Nstepz,9ogge4r,pre;yfHsrGoayoarlcafmdrhlt’lheoasoronl,oo&wc&bgesiMsceA(oaeracrvl.toigatar.hstl,aiceo,cNiwen2lains0sts,ch1bse2a0e0stt;hth0t,Hhaa32peos)0,ewrs0siyceu8ebhlb)tla.ja&setNricocetHoidpvtfowisuefwylfiwletceyhrhleeslol,tnolal2-tofnbf0gfdeer0iriioc8nnma)ggal, somspocieccdciuEdatrillmsveceaplcllayloisar,nssigsfcpo)aao,rlsacihTntoiednorutnaritnihdosuativiuttceimiortpntoiiussmfrpcipenol.oasssetssshi,bcelareetSecftgoouogrdrnipyeizesioon(pfegl.eSgt.oht,ocawtisaohslroikfCcitnialiganlsccstlhlaaesssisr,
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processeshasnotbeenfullyarticulated.
The aim of the present article is to provide such a theory, a Three broad approaches to the study of social class inform the
social cognitive theory of social class. We contend that an indi- present theory. A labor perspective on social class is rooted in
Marx and Engels’s (1848/1973) analysis of capitalism and class
conflict.Withinthisperspective,socialclassesareconstitutedby
Michael W. Kraus, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, labor relations between individuals who control the means of
Urbana-Champaign;PaulK.Piff,RodolfoMendoza-Denton,MichelleL. production (e.g., factories and businesses) and those working
Rheinschmidt,andDacherKeltner,DepartmentofPsychology,University
withinthosemeans.Cleardistinctionsbetweenthebourgeoisie—
ofCalifornia,Berkeley.
the ruling class—and the lower classes derive from these labor
WewishtothankCameronAndersonforhelpfulcommentsonanearlier
relationsaswellasfromtheprestigeoftheindividual’soccupation
versionofthisarticle.
(Beeghley, 2004; Coleman & Rainwater, 1978; Gilbert, 2002;
CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoMichael
W. Kraus, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana- Hout,2008;Thompson&Hickey,2005).Differentsocialinstitu-
Champaign, 603 East Daniel Street, Champaign, IL 61820. E-mail: tions—elite preparatory schools, social clubs (the Bohemian
[email protected] Grove,cotillionsocieties),corporateboards,andaccesstopolitical
546
SOCIALCLASS,SOLIPSISM,ANDCONTEXTUALISM 547
figures—reinforce the ruling class’s power and control over the Resources and Rank: The Substance of Social Class
lowerclassesinsociety(Domhoff,1998).Outoftheseprocesses
emergetheupper-andlower-classes,whoseinterestsareopposed Fundamentaltoourtheoryistheassumptionthatsocialclassisnot
simply a trait along which individuals vary, but is instead a social
to one another. Marx and Engels (1848/1973) referred to the
contextthatindividualsinhabitinenduringandpervasivewaysover
awarenessofsuchsocietalstratificationas“classconsciousness.”
time. Though some would suggest that social class is a relatively
Asecondempiricaltraditionhasemergedinthestudyofphysical
superficialcategory,onewithlittleimpactuponthepsychologyofthe
health, and might be called the health psychology perspective on
individualandthatcanbeovercomewithsufficienteffort(Kingston,
socialclass.Thisperspectiveemergedintheseminaldiscoverythat
2000),inreality,individualsspendamajorityoftheirdailylivesin
lower-class individuals are more vulnerable to physical disease and
contextsthataresortedlargelyintermsofsocialclass.Forexample,
psychological hardships than their upper-class counterparts. For ex-
consider that people tend to date and marry (Sweeney & Cancian,
ample,lower-classindividualsareatgreaterriskofpoorshort-and
2004),liveinneighborhoodsandattendschools(Lareau,2003;Nis-
long-term health outcomes relative to their upper-class counterparts
bett, 2008), and work with individuals who share similar levels of
(Adleretal.,1994;Kawachi,Kennedy,Lochner,&Prothrow-Stith,
blishers. ed broadly. 1bex9eip9ne7gr;ieW(nDciileeknimnersoo&rne,S1inu9th9e,9n)s1,e9t9ea7nn;ddHtoforeweqxeuplelenr&itennHceeogwareteidvlule,c2emd0o0so8ud)b,jeastcnatdtievsteenw(ede.gltlo.-, etterdaxusAttcsinanatgireoemlnedaevelregfltisernaneoitndfiemnbmgyaptateiwnrriidcoaalilpnrrecloisotcoemeursaerstcue(esArse:rtthgihsayetlfeiod,nbed1fjiei9nnc9get4ivt)th.heeaetixnspdoeicvriiiaedlnuccaella’sossfsocccooinna--l
one of its allied puot to be disseminat dhedtoxyaitspsidopoifnvhsosueocrrru(geiesci.entgodag.f,cofppehnaecrtrotit;cdeneerGipnncatstisilofltiyornneisns&hsgoe)faMaalcstnhopadnetatcthcnrtleosdawlso,assfrf-,efrleea2oclc0watt0.tieeo3rdn)-.csclTaotosnossgthteerrntuehvaaelitrsr),ootnthhfmaitsthegnoreitsvsseee(caeror.igcnsh.e-, lsKsoioorvrccia“niiuaaogsllb,,cjcealPlacnaistdsfisfsv,iteshh&”eiteyrripeKnasirdceocailuhvtlnrlyicydeeru(is,nAadl2od’e0rslxe1ccer1a,od)pn.EiisntpWtareslu:oli,atmthlhCeeoraefcsisontrpemdalenilcvbaktziidnzvtuaooita,sil-om’&a`ns-avoftIieifcsnrktiahoaonlrtvcheiireecaerslmss,owaiu2nter0ecar0telih0tashe;l,
on or d is n claAsstahsircdueltmurpeirpicearlspapecptriovaec.hAtnoismopcioarltacnlatspsrmeciugrhstobretocoalulerdthtehoeryso,cthiaisl (aDndreonctecau,p2at0i0o0n)a,lepdreusctaigtieon(aOlaaktetasin&mRenotss(iS,n2i0b0b3e).&InMuanrikvuesr,si2ty00s5et)-,
Psychological Associatiof the individual user an psaKSFchnletoaoeardrshsprspebnhedee,xebchna1satamsio9cvvck6epieiogt9laecrr;alao,olMlc.une,osncm2acnedrr0tppskie1ptiuxur1taistsa,csrle(a2&iBtzl0hego0asKsuutt9uisri;cddtdoarSeiiceyeedtiaseauatpml,ebfhc1iyacnle9,alnd7asd2s9ssi,0tsf;ha-fM0Gasse3ptrara;eeorinfckSnsotisudnfrmisiimmcvb,aib&adrnoeenunfpnTa&c&eeluosrrtlswVoMtfuinraarroaserenrmens,dknuauodmsdsrf,u,ia,f2vlf22es0aee00sl0rtu01e7oeo51n)sff;;t. trslifiianneetnarpcdcggttooiulescmyrs,,et,sser(resoeeaous.fpnegfgrfad.gea,mresmceKesahdtniteiurletnyarcarsguiatiaisnttvli,tycoheproPnaeimt;iscsfaaorftemh,lu,(cid:1)leyrp&pcyale.aer5sasseK3srnetee(etfslaNontrslnredeeole(cid:1)adrbtdt,oujiuevc21cccea0a0tolti0tyi,vri3o9ore0nei)nn.l8,mada)aEtennaempftddeiehnpropniidigcaadrhcrliecteulnhryanpetal,tsata(otbslriuttuoouhr(cid:1)tncdecacseinelues.os4pgtu2atrwhasptiidrfeioneoternhger-;
can use etiquette(Elias,1978),honordifferentcustomsandhabits(Bourdieu, r(cid:1).58forincomeandoccupationalgrade;Singh-Manoux,Adler,&
merinal 1979,1985),expressdifferentaestheticpreferencesforartandmusic Marmot,2003).Thesethreevariablescanbethoughtofasthemate-
opyrighted by the Ad solely for the perso (1e&buSa9elaunh7Dr,ia1b2vr)sbe,0iooew0ceri&3nmsa,;olpwPnMlcoeoslaarykamrrsykldsi,suni,sf2if&,ad0en2e0rdnK0e9tn0)oie.t5txhy)Ippn,,nae,uwrc1bset9ehenai6ittlnciia6onhgn)ng,gsawau,scnatictredhgualeedlteteasuiignntriapddedtoisieivfwfdfi(fedKeeriurrenuefantusnlotslttefatwoirhknooeaefwdsylsuess,eo((2pnnMB0acte0aeotrs4ennpr;ssnauitLrvspetaaiioocnirnsf--, rtp(fhieola.eeclIgi,umr.s,stuphlBbiooevsnoretityasnaancndacestire,elveycBio,dosfrunhpotadaewhlpoespnepr,ditlonoe&dcb’eswiyvMshijsfduoeoutdamhoagtarlume’ttrs,hege2sesniovy0tocse1fics0aootl)rhfm.icseTtlpeahhlaseotirsosce.mathlthahaectseeoiirlrnneiatddmelixvracteit—odesnuerifadaaorlilc’trishwoeesnxeresaasnmlsottohef-
This document is cThis article is intende scctthhoulaeoclIstuinusasgrolhta(chceltili.aaagsplns.e,sadrc.rsootapOicnccecuttlceuiertoxp,isnvtaswoet(ciseeooi’.anfgola.lfs,scofstMoewaegrtreuantiarrsio-k,tinufvaeosendtuh&durtahtchtuaeKtpsoisitprotroyauencyrcaii-aastlcumlliaranaatcstfl,oaso1gidrni9mnenm9itdtee1ieidrvv;nmeiSbtd,iyhpnuwweaatrnhelesstead,pslelteaaohrcn,bf)tdi1ovss9roheh9acao1noipwa)dnel. rrovaifiets1hs-seWa`tory-cvetphiiicaascolnanlolscaytilhdcaeseusurrlstsgo—uguriearntslhtthpeseteohoricasrnytpideeobticyfvethisivdoa(eAvuc,iiaaodflolrl’ercsalrsarecisesvsoetenasrsasaftllarr.o,rusemoa2acls0ioaa0ocnl0fcscu.;oslFgtSounirc.ristaitiCat,viloeconuhpcleeltpaurnrssropasceleetctrshtaisaevneloes.k-,,,
theseindividualsrelatetoothers.Thehealthpsychologyperspective whereinapersonlearnsnorms,values,andexpectationsforhowtobea
person within a particular cultural group. Our social cognitive theory
informs our theory in its highlighting of ancient, mammalian
focusesinsteadontheunderlyingingredientsofthesocialclasscontext—
processes—such as threat vigilance (e.g., MacDonald & Leary,
material resources and social class rank—that produce social cognitive
2005)—that give rise to class-related social cognitive patterns of
tendenciesandguidebehavior.Second,manyofourpredictionsinvolve
thought,feeling,andaction.Finally,wesharetheassumption—atthe physiological (e.g., autonomic physiology) and social responses (e.g.,
heartoftheculturalperspective—thatsocialclassleadstopredictable threat reactivity) rooted in evolutionary accounts of social hierarchies—
socialcognitivethoughtpatternsandworldviewsthatarenotidiosyn- bothelementsofourtheorizingthatarelessreadilyanticipatedbycultural
cratic,butrathershared,upheld,andpromotedbypeopleinsimilar theories and the acculturation processes they presuppose. Finally, our
social cognitive theory has little to say about a central focus of cultural
circumstances.Guidedinpartbythesetheories,weproposethatthe
theoriesofsocialclass—theprocessofmutualconstitution,whereinpar-
materialconditionsoftheindividual’slife,andhowheorsheexpe-
ticipationinclass-specificbehaviorsreinforcesanindividual’ssocialclass
riencesrankinthoseconditions,createssocialclasscontextsthatelicit
identity (Shweder, 1991; Markus & Kitayama, 2003). The process of
a coherent set of social cognitive tendencies and guide patterns of mutual constitution based on social class is a provocative area of future
thought,feeling,andaction.1 research,butbeyondthescopeofthepresentreview.
548 KRAUSETAL.
2008).Thatis,towhatextentdoestheindividualbelievehisorher administerpunishments(S.T.Fiske,2010;Guinote&Vescio,2010;
materialresourcesareelevatedordiminishedrelativetoothers? Keltner,Gruenfeld,&Anderson,2003)—differsfromsocialclassin
Rank is a fundamental process in mammalian social life. In that social class does not guarantee control or influence over other
nonhuman primates, rank is well defined in display behavior, is individuals. A person with low education attainment, income, and
negotiated in status contests, and has pervasive outcomes (de occupationstatus(e.g.,gasstationmanager)maystillwieldconsid-
Waal,1984).Instablehierarchieswithinnon-humanspecies,low erable power over other employees at his or her job, or may make
rankingindividualstendtoshowhigherchroniclevelsofcortisol most of the decisions at home. Yet, another pervasive rank-related
(Sapolsky,2000,2004),increasedaggression(Belzung&Ander- process,sociometricstatus—whichreferstotherespectoneenjoysin
son, 1986; Southwick, 1967), and reduced access to group re-
theeyesofmembersofimportantsocialgroups(Anderson&Kilduff,
sources (Post, Hausfater, & McClusky, 1980; Wrangham & Wa-
2009)—also differs from social class. Being from an upper-class
terman,1981).Incontrast,high-rankingnon-humanstendtoenjoy
environment does not guarantee high levels of social esteem or
more grooming partners (e.g., Watts, 2000) and increased repro-
respect (e.g., wealthy individuals have long been stereotyped in
ductiveopportunities(Abbott,1984;Wickings&Dixson,1992).
ways—as “greedy” or “condescending”—that speak to a lack of
ers. oadly. aloHnugmmaannsysdoirmt ethnesmiosnesl,vienscliundtoingpopshityiosincsaloafttlroibwutaensd(eh.gig.,hprhaynsk- socOianleesimteepmor;taSn.tTim.Fpilsikcea,tiConudodfyt,hGisliacnka,l&ysiXsui,s2th0a0t2)s.ocialclassis
blished br igcraolupstcaotuhrees,iobne,atuhtey)a,bsiloitcyiatlobteelhlaavgioorosd(set.ogr.y,)t,haendabeinldituyritnogbtruaiiltds not reducible to power or sociometric status. Empirical evidence
ed puminat (e.g.,intelligence,extraversion;Anderson,John,Keltner,&Kring, lGikaeliwnisskey,saunpdpoKrtesltntheirs(2as0s1e2r)tioconl.leFcoterdeaxanmatpiolen,alAonndleinrseosna,mKprlaeuosf,
one of its alliot to be disse 2Kp0alr0eTee1hdf;e,tAComnhoodestenhtr,eswr&osindaKe&clrcyaoK-uursidsl,eidn2dug0fi0fnt,8od2)e.t0xhH0e9ouir;fmSpsao.encrTscia.ealiFlvsciesoladkrseass,no2rkca0inat1hkl0ec;imslKastseheslle.tvneMesra,ccVoAmarn-- aocdlbaujselstcstriavwnekhro(essurobeupjreoccrettsievd(ee.SugEp.,oSinninctohtmheeierU,senodictueicadaltSicotlanats)essa)n,thdarlsoouunbggjhewciitntihvdeiscesevosecrioaafll
on or d is n tIhnutrhSiscamleeaosfuSreu,bpjeacrttiicviepSanotcsiopelaccoenothmeimcsSetlavteusso(Andalelardedtearl.w,2i0th001)0. sseelnfs-erepoofrtpsoowferpo(we.egr.,an“IdtshtiantuksIthhaatviencaludgeredatthdeefaollloofwpinogw:etrh”e;
al Associatidual user an rpinuecnoogpmslereea,ptertdehuseectnaottpiinoognf,stoahnceidestopycr.ieaTslthicgeliahosiusgshheijeosrbtasrru.cnhTgyh—eofbtthohotetsoelamwddirteuhrntrgheefoemfrstohtsoet Ad(“enHtdeoremwrsionmninu,gcJhoahannud,th&ionrdiKetypeeldtnnodeerIn,ht2”a;0v1eR2y)in,ffamu&ytoKnsooecmyieaysl,(ge1r.o9gu9.,p5”“),;IaPauomtrhteosreril&tfy-
Psychologicof the indivi lwoianrditntdheoertrmhjoersbelf.oeeafSrssuotbnitjnoeec’csotthimsveoeecb,siolaoetlctaoicsomtleaecsdsooufnrcoatanmhtikeoicnws,ositactahnitaiudnlstchs(loSeacEslisoSewt)hyeicesaartsnaprabrceehwsytahi—sgoseletehsj,osoebosdesr LAcgiranoowdmuelpeerstrsr,oi(cn1e,9.gs6St.8a,rti)uv“,saIpsethieanarvvataeh,crBcaeeeephetoirag,fnhScppelaaer(tvteaie.crgloi.p,,oa&“fnItrsCfe’eshepmaletoamccstatcnieni,pmt2oep0dtoh0rbe6tray)s,n’otatnehsdyoeercsssio””a-;;l
can use one’slocalcommunity(Adleretal.,2000;Goodmanetal.,2001). Andersonetal.,2006).Theresultsfromthisanalysis(N(cid:1)316),
merinal Other measures of social class rank include self-reports of social presentedinTable1,revealthateducationalattainmentandannual
hted by the Ay for the perso c1m(Bl9aa7ost1eysr;ciceaMalteaetrhgeaaosllro.ii,nue2grsc0a(em1es0.,g)t1,.o,9ou9rtp8hdp)a,ietrtrehocmeftiocodbotdjhmleeecprtsacivrlaiiesnsoscn,ooslmnoetwpo’aserarilsrocoeclnaaalslosof;crooBinmmeerm’ansgsutoinenwiietnndy, iapcnllslacysocmsmh.eoIeanlosmtuegrerieceasasstluinorregfaslnypwk,o-eewrrveeeleranutenasdncuodbcrjreosecntlatasitvttureeusd,cStorEsreSfnfl,reeoacgmtariantingvmke-eltbyhaaescsueorsdreerspemalaoreatfaetsiduosornweciiootahffl
yrigolel interactionpartner(e.g.,Kraus,Horberg,Goetz,&Keltner,2011). socialclass,wasonlymoderatelyrelatedtomeasuresofpowerand
opd s Importantly, rank-based measures of social class predict class- status (average r (cid:1) .23), highlighting the independence of these
This document is cThis article is intende baefductaencsnWaoedtl.duaep,mnr2ppote0iaocnn0tsegtt0iseats;rflelntoSyhssr.a—sotCihnbmtaohjpehsaeeceetdetlnsifrov-biecraeyatilatrtarelehelds.esc,osolaua2eunsr0rtcsdcw0ee8cops)omh.rnaeeyntalesdasixtoutpelrdeoaer,gnscbiecoiupnafttdlisrioeohvnlceiasdiatauilolvtafheclsllyieoanvscihseniaand(lbAeicaptdlsfeatlnseeiss-rr pclrcpealosaaanygssrktcnnshtie(htrofdiaeovlnooarekgbratiioeec(sunsAautdlomnsemfdonmecepcriaaioaserswolsyunc,eral,erssasseKsooesorrcfafSisruap.oostocTme,wid.oeueFmtwnriaiesdatlkthen.r,eridcsc,2ltr20aase0sn1tlas1ad2tt0ic)uen.a)sdg,n.Ttncohhootoehntouessrgrtoirhelfuesocmlrotymsufdasctrnhhaodewfcsssauooonpcccioiibaaanelll
rank.Materialresourcesdefinesocialclasscontextsby,forexam-
Thus far we have made the case that social class is rooted in
ple, determining a person’s access to valued goods and services.
experiences of different levels of material resources and in the
Rank determines the social class context by shaping chronic per-
construalofone’splaceinaclasshierarchyvis-a`-visothers,andis
ceptionsofone’srelativestandinginsocietyorinone’scommu-
notreducibletootherrank-relatedstates.Buildingonthisframe-
nity.Inresearchusingbothnationalanduniversitysamples,sub-
jective SES correlated with measures of education (rs (cid:1) .13 and work, in the following section we describe our social cognitive
.34,respectively,ps(cid:2).05)andincome(rs(cid:1).39and.59,respec- theoryoftheeffectsofsocialclass.2
tively, ps (cid:2) .05; Kraus et al., 2009) at levels that are consistent
with a medium to large effect size (e.g., J. Cohen, 1992). These
2Oursocialcognitivetheoryofsocialclassalignswithrecentconcep-
correlations were far from perfect, indicating that resources and
tualizationsofsituatedsocialcognition(forareview,seeE.R.Smith&
rankarerelativelyindependentaspectsofsocialclass.
Semin, 2007). Specifically, our theory suggests that class-based social
Importantly,ouranalysissuggeststhatclassisnotsimplyexplained cognitive patterns are not isolated within individuals; rather, they are
by other rank-related processes. Perhaps most importantly, social shaped by the pervasive social goals, values, and expectations that are
power—a person’s relative control over resources and ability to inherenttolower-andupper-classcontexts,respectively.
SOCIALCLASS,SOLIPSISM,ANDCONTEXTUALISM 549
Table1
CorrelationsBetweentheDeterminantsofPower,Status,andSocialClass
Psychologicalindicesofpowerandstatus
Socialclass Senseofpower Autonomy Authority Acceptance Sociometricstatus Averagea
Education (cid:3).15(cid:1) (cid:3).06 (cid:3).03 (cid:3).09 (cid:3).03 (cid:3).07
Income .04 (cid:3).01 .10 .06 .08 .05
SubjectiveSES .25(cid:1) .10 .23(cid:1) .19(cid:1) .36(cid:1) .23(cid:1)
Note. SES(cid:1)socioeconomicstatus.
aIndicatesanaveragecompositeacrossallpsychologicalindicesofpowerandstatus.
(cid:1)p(cid:2).05.
ers. oadly. Social Class, Solipsism, and Contextualism individuals,lower-classindividuals’pursuitofgoalsandinterests
blished br Advances in cultural psychology suggest that shared experi- irsancko.nDstirmaiinneisdhebdyretshoeuirrcreesd,uucnecderteacionntyo,maincdruensporuerdciecstabanilditysoarceiaal
ed puminat ennocrmess,levaadluteos,thaenddeevxepleocptmatieonntsatnhdata,cintivtuatrino,nguoifdaerciuclhtunreet-wspoerckifoicf centralpartofthesocialcontextsoflower-classindividuals.
on or one of its allid is not to be disse rMcsmephepaeenerclk,triftu2hoisc0iisr0&wte7osa)rK.yieosTistfahogyefbuaersimehdalmeaaav,tepii1noai9gtsr9tett1(orr,enu.o2segt0.hoo,0eff3rDcr,sel.2oltah0sCtae1itn0orga;herleMetanotef,ioonnnr2edmsw0oh0zeia7odp-;tsDht:heHeRrronseeutilo(ngaAnethi,no&adn2testM0arhs0ciieph8sn---; ccsfteoeolaxnrnTsctstuhseeeaesxilttnlhouiidanufaietftlvsliocuisiddniterueencsa’cuooslem’cfssaisiaccntstlaayidnonsiccnvtobeesigemdsnauroriaeotefliafvllccoe,hkowsrnnttoeoertnurrnw-oicdccllteleauaandlrslncagysdileeiiinsinnin.dsffflilIluvucuneiehednnaneuccrcsaaeeselcdses.tne(bTgercyiih.evzge,eee.s,xdlersotieosbwcrecyoneintaaroa--ll
Associatial user an &fvuidnuCctahiloesnnfs,roi2nm0a0a2s;pimaBritaliacldruwlwairanys,,o1cth9iaa9lt5ct)hl.arsoWsuegcohpnsrtheoxaprtoesddeevetxehlpaoetpriseaonsccyieasslt,ecminladosis-f innaelqiunaflliuteyn,cineasdoenquaactteiosnoc(iea.lgs.,erevxipceesc)taotiroenxspfeocrtadtiiosncrsimofineaxttieorn-
al du knowledge,actiontendencies,andaffectsthatdetermineshowthe basedonsocialclass).Theresultoftheseperceivedexternalities
ogicdivi individualthinks,feels,andrelatestoothers.Intheremainderof is a system of knowledge that favors explanations of behavior that
n Psychole of the in tshoicIsinaalrtchtioecglenm,itowivsteegtdheeentoaerirlya.lspseecnisfiec, pwreopporsoitpioonses tthhaatt atrhiesecfornotmextouisr ioanctvhtioeorlnsv’e(sthfeooerucFgeihsgtusorueants1di)d.aectoiofnisn,daivnidduinaclrecaosnetdrosl,ituinactiroenaaseldinafltuteenntcioesnotno
as
erical u prioritized for lower-class individuals. Disposed to relative re- In contrast, upper-class contexts prioritize the individualized
Amson source scarcity and diminished rank, lower-class contexts expose self. Disposed to environments of relatively abundant material
he per individualstoincreasedexternalsocialinfluencesonthematerial resourcesandelevatedrankinsociety,upper-classindividualsare
y the conditions of their lives—less safe neighborhoods, threats of job free to pursue the goals and interests they choose for themselves
hted by for t iancstitoabnisliatyn,drleimsoiutrtcheeirflsuocctuiaaltioopnpsoirntunscithieoso.lsR—eltahtiavtectoonustprpaeinr-cthlaesisr (oWve.r,Jochonmspoanre&dKtoruloegweerr,-2cl0a0s5s;iLndaicvhimduaanls&,uWppeearv-celra,s1s9i9n8d)i.vMidouraels-
yrigolel
opd s
This document is chis article is intende MATERIAL THE(F SCreOOeCdNUoITpAmpE,L eXC rC oTCLn ltAarosSls,S C hoice) Aennv iinrdoinvmideunSatOl misLtoiIctPi vSoaIrSiteeMndt batyi oinnt teor nthale
T RESOURCES states, goals, and emotions.
(education, income,
occupation status)
SOCIAL CLASS CONTEXTUALISM
RANK
An external orientation to the
(perceptions of rank environment motivated by
vis-à-vis others) managing external constraints,
Lower Class outside threats, and other
(Threat, Uncertainty, Constraint) individuals
Figure 1. Conceptual model illustrating the characteristics of social class contexts and the expression of
solipsisticandcontextualistsocialcognitivetendencies.
550 KRAUSETAL.
pursue these goals and interests relatively free of concerns about norms (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, 2003), changes in the social
theirmaterialcosts.Theselifecircumstances—increasedresources context (Andersen & Chen, 2002), and the presence of social
and fewer external constraints—play out in the day-to-day threatstotheself(MacDonald&Leary,2005).
thoughtsandactionsofupper-classindividuals. Here,wefocusonthreeaspectsoftheself:vigilancetothreats
These life circumstances create what we call solipsistic social (MacDonald&Leary,2005),thepersonalsenseofcontrol(Lach-
cognitivetendenciesamongupper-classindividuals.Solipsismisa man&Weaver,1998),andmodelsofagencyversuscommunion
philosophicalideathatcentersonthenotionthatone’sownmind (Markus & Kitayama, 2003, 2010). Table 2 summarizes our pre-
isafundamentalsourceofknowledgeaboutthesocialworldand dictionsregardingsocialclassandtheself.Inthesethreedomains,
istheprimaryinfluenceonpeople’severydaythoughtsandactions we hypothesize that lower-class individuals will demonstrate
(Russell,1914).Guidedbythisconceptualdefinition,wecontend greatersensitivitytopotentialsocialandenvironmentalthreats,a
that continuous life experiences of economic and social freedom lower personal sense of control, and a more communal self-
create a system of knowledge—among upper-class individuals— concept.Incontrast,weexpectupper-classindividualstodemon-
characterized by the sense that one’s own internal states (e.g., strateareducedsensitivitytothreat,anelevatedpersonalsenseof
ers. oadly. tornaitths,oguogahlts,anemdoactitoionns).Daries,paonsdedshtooutlhdisbseo,laipfsuinsdtiacmsoencitaallcinofgluneitnivcee caognentrcoyl., and a self-concept characterized by increased personal
blished br mbeiinndgsecta,uusepdpebry-cilnadsisviindduiavliidnufalulsenacree(lvikse.lcyontotexextupallaiinnfblueehnacvei)o,raares Hypothesis 1: Lower-Class Individuals Will Be More
ed puminat morelikelytoattendtotheirown(vs.others’)mentalstates,and Vigilant to Threat Than Upper-Class Individuals
on or one of its allid is not to be disse a(ywssirifeeeeTielempdhdFreoseisayrsgeecesuctncrleoiltemkartsde1hasli)ety-n.ircgeetomliatnoitpfgeilndrmuioecsernoaaeclcseaiueasnvrldeiucdprooeeognfsnncissietotthicfsvrriieeoateulmtaedctnoitldohamensesnasaecilnaiitensnhsdf(r,lieuwneeefentfdhecfoecuemtsrAtaohopinennprseaspncocotdclisaioiixastn-l,, sttseeeemnllTffd..pheeIrnAnercaapimotepusreiarsn(iMtfsaiar(ilskebst.uagshlo.ii,yfncpcCtoaeh.prtrhpAe&ear.satSiiSsshg,maailwvvieteuehrn,rpd&i2ose0esr0liEyt6tloilt)nsh,gwapatnaottdhtrthteehcrroe,ncarso1etn9bois8seft5rlnu)iee,ocmfttasiotoratatanbincoodhonuomftmatetnhhlnydeet
Psychological Associatiof the individual user an cfccvSbooloiyeadcgmcstuunohsmsaineitlindiusnpog,ndrtnwaoeis)vld.ep,iiiedFncewcucitxriihraaofseelimtnsac,rsaeiwttenlaholdeseaytbppesoceeoxenorlramcincmhpeetooseppiirnxwtsteiiettoouiccnrcnaoesllsaanitosecstotnefstfi-xtdtvebhtecenuaenodsacntseleoiotidnerscosctsicloiatoelecleasnnieanacwdnddleevipntlupihtlrcipeoroeirpeenlnsaeesmostvrsnl-aeoecatnafalleatndt,saphdgsgleeouemriwicsnndeoecdeelpryrifde---,. duwctcvihliaiveasolaestslrrrseeaitwnboacincuistlteedotlhreineibavdz,neieebdaddnmeucvcrpaboioaluryrsusoensslniievintmsviictvogehreecieenilianaartessnelneestocnvdptlfviooarvitnsorhtusoshneleenrmnisserme,aerufttnearhspnotbaspitmitnsleoiritfdtn-tyhhecloeflefaaiwanensccndeesrtvrd,ic-emilcorxionoliutanwennsparmestanlerriae-rjntucplndblsatta.ityhrvistTrcssiieednh.aiuciLntssrasydoelisiwsrsavtesaeseiledrmaorde---,
can use tualattunementtothecontext(e.g.,externalenvironmentalforces, (e.g., Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997); more pervasive
erial others’ emotions) among lower-class individuals, whereas solip- vulnerabilities to health problems, shorter life spans, increased
mn
Aso sistic tendencies will elevate upper-class individuals’ perceptual depression and other disorders (Gallo & Matthews, 2003); and
This document is copyrighted by the his article is intended solely for the per acsccstuthtoolrtaainmuaOsplttnisseemuse.xgtirmnutiafuedniensraiandvsllttislisydsusttouoceSaloahtinoilrponsdictsfethwiiensasharottitynleillclpaidlCpolfoooswtlibrihcansieeueefsthrilssns-cuaectmevsaatlneationpioncsorerdsedensrsetsioatnnothniiocdnnneiwipsefvblesaStuierodrtesehdouonhlaafncogvol-easwuiCtolhitdwrfoehc.rerelniesaFleblc,ssidrseneeowo-planrafmlhe-tgdlclyeasaorr,gtieenenewalcdasereitecnipoeluotanx.pmntspiptTohoeeehnxircrpee---t gWfspMtp2whayrh0secreseyiy0Seelatncpls5aeetidhiretm)vsacee.ohrmeadds,Aporl,seias,hucow,tlb2alyetcdl,2ha0ssciisn0aii0itawcosiile00occhls7e;aotntfhil)ogevlPe.hrfsaianeiaecTyctetaasiuaeskvghtblrtsseiheleewdoettmtsteecsmohounnif&acaycetitthlthsredh,hiteG,eahesamvudueassiosorragosirtvdsrnunichgtiliniibgisravafaegetjnnealsmremascli,sct-stheusaretm2aeiltlit0vtitfvlnoizha0epeotaat5oltmefttehc;i(dolraMlamorWeonlntewlahwaeysetiaracped.leenlsDroiria-udna-anctocrdmsdlenltoaeahs(sassxsBra,ltsaeserddln2saaiaain,dct0nsp&di0cddfmtsioir7mievvovev)tLiem.etidihdlc(ecuyTeouhatai.thdraoghlt&yilsson.ess,,,,
T self-concept consists of the goals, attributes, motives, and beliefs supportthisfirsthypothesis.Selectevidencesuggeststhatlower-
about the self that an individual maintains (W. James, 1890; class individuals experience elevated activation in physiological
Markus&Kitayama,1991,2003,2010).Theseaspectsoftheself systemsengagedbythreat.Forexample,lower-classadults,mea-
shiftaccordingtogoalsforself-evaluation(Swann,1990),cultural sured in terms of annual income and possession of wealth, show
Table2
SocialClassandDimensionsoftheSocialSelf
Domain Lower-classcontextualism Upper-classsolipsism
Threatperceptions Threatreactivity Reducedthreatsensitivity
Senseofcontrol Diminishedpersonalcontrol Elevatedpersonalcontrol
Self-concept Communal,commonchoice, Personallyagentic,uniquechoice,
contextuallydetermined geneticallyandtraitdetermined
SOCIALCLASS,SOLIPSISM,ANDCONTEXTUALISM 551
reduced decline in daily salivary cortisol levels—a correlate of performedworsethanwhenthetestwasframedasnotdiagnostic
physiological stress—relative to their upper-class counterparts of ability (cf. Spencer & Castano, 2007). More generally, class-
(e.g., Hajat et al., 2010). Lower-class children, as assessed in related expectations of threat and social rejection are likely to
parentaleducationandoccupationstatus,showelevatedheartrate predict reduced feelings of belonging at universities or social
andbloodpressurefollowingambiguouslythreateningsocialsce- institutions primarily dominated by upper-class individuals (Ste-
narios(Chen&Matthews,2001).Giventhesefindings,onemight phens et al., 2007), and a potential lack of trust of government
expectlower-classindividualstoshowgreateractivationofother officials or political leaders (e.g., Tyler, Rasinski, & McGraw,
physiologicalprocessesinvolvedinthreat,forexampleincreased 1985).
activation in the amygdala in response to anger faces—a brain
region typically activated during perceptions of threat (Evans, Hypothesis 2: Lower-Class Individuals Will
Shergill, & Averbeck, 2010). Moreover, these heightened reac- Experience Reduced Personal Sense of Control
tions to threatening stimuli may elevate cardiovascular reactivity
Relative to Upper-Class Individuals
(e.g.,highbloodpressure)and,inturn,couldexplainlower-class
ers. oadly. i(ne.dgi.v,idJ.uEal.s’Phinilclriepasse&dKtelnedine,nc2y01t0o)d.evelopcoronaryheartdisease perAsosncaelnstreanlseasoafpcpornaitsroedl—thwrehaicthisrteoflethcetsstohceiaelxsteelnft,sthoattoiondisivtihde-
blished br theTshoactiaalmspellvifeiesdofthlorewaetrv-ciglailsasnicnediivsidaufaulnsdisamalesnotadlemcoomnsptoranteendtboyf u&alWsfeeaevleerl,ev1a9t9e8d).frPeeerdcoemiveadndcoinnftlruoelnicseaocvoerrethaepiprrlaiviseasl(tLhaatchgmivaens
ed puminat theirenduringexpectationsofthreat.Asoneexample,alongwith rise to patterns of emotion (e.g., Keltner, Ellsworth, & Edwards,
one of its alliot to be disse tdhmhroeeesitntrail-pieanencriacnreletyeaivtrsiaeeccdgtirrpoeehnvaystiese(irwoCtlhhofregoeniauctna&aldnrMdetshahpatootthsntelsiowleiwstsy,etori2n-0tchv0lari1eds)ase.to,Aislnosodwfiwveaeirmdl-lcub,laiaaglssusroecscueheslinlfly--t 1Braes9rls9oaut3wmi)vn,eeo&tpthotTeimyaloyipswlomoers,rs(-e1Wcs9lsa8esi6gns)rs.etiaIenntidenior,vu1icdr9ous8nea0tclr)soo,,lnaudonpvdhpeyperprol-osictfilhteaie’vsssseisos,iuenwtldcfei-ovrmpeidgreeuasdardil(csLt(aewtc.hgihal.-tl,
on or d is n rreeplaotrivteedtomuoprpeerc-hclraosnsicindleivviedlsuaolsf,tcwyoniccoarlemsoisctiraulsbtelainedfshfoousntidlietyd mapapnra&isaWlseoafvtehrr,e1a9t,9e8m).eTrgheisscoluatsso-frethlaeteddifbfeerleienftilnifecocnirtcroulm,satsawncieths
al Associatidual user an itnheTpreherrlceaeatiitvovenidsghitilhparsnecaoetf(ilGsowalileklroe-lc&ylatsMosahintatdvhieevwipdsru,oan2lso0—u0n3ac).ethdeimnfeluweencreestuurnpotno otchofenlotvewuxletnsre,-raaubnpidplietuyrp-cpalneards-scelxaitnsesdrniivnaidldituvhairdlesuaatislnsth.haSabtpiectchieafnriacvcaitlreloyrni,zmienelncotowsnetorr-afcslteantsos-
Psychologicof the indivi lddiasoettecienrucmtikinneengettphetiihdnsegrttehhwvariietetahwltoe.HnwiOyenprng-octetlhhmaeisssositstiihon1end.msivSoei,pfdeuiccnlaiolfssoiceuaarflrrleoyiew,nmandfost,wreeraortfakeicnacdswuiinrneaggthetoahvnianeet hheelxaoenpfvfce,aertide1ed9nw9csee8taa).ltatunhMs,,eopulreepervpsaoelitnrke-adeclllyafssreestnoesidneoodmciovcf,uidappunyeadrlspssooosnschaiitoaliuolclnodospnpbtoorefortlmiu.nnofTirlteuhieeislsnikc(ieeDslyoaomnutdo-r
n e
caus another, female friends estimated their own and their friends’ secondhypothesisconcerningsocialclassandtheself.
erial hostile emotions (i.e., anger, contempt, and disgust) during the Numerousstudiessupportthishypothesis.Forexample,several
mn
Aso interaction. Consistent with our threat reactivity hypothesis, al- nationally collected adult samples have documented associations
hted by the y for the per tsjhueodssugegidnhgwftrihitehenirpdafsrriefenrnotdamls’ilnpocowosmeitrie-veaanneddmeuodptuipocenarst-i,colonans)lsywbetahrceekblgoorwothuerna-dcccslau(srasastpeaaisrn-- bmdoeetmawsaeuienrensd(rinb(cid:1)cyo.ma1s0es,epsasn(cid:2)idng.0e2lpe;evWracte.epJdtoiohrnnesspooonrft&scKoonfrturpeogelresirno,n2da0li0f5fce)o,rengntertnoellri—fael
opyrigd solel teimcioptainotnssp(rKorvaeuds,tHoobrebearcgc,uertatael.,in20j1u1d)g.inImgptohretiarnftlryie,nldosw’ehr-ocsltaisles pWerecaevpetri,o1n9s9o8f),mpaesrcteerpytio(rnss(cid:1)of.l0if8etcoon.1st6r,aipnsts(cid:2)(rs.0(cid:1)1;–L.2a1chtmoa–n.3&1,
This document is chis article is intende imhcqnliuadegTesaihnsvhscuivedeirensuehrd.daseiFulivsgiso’inhdrltauoeetcaewxnclraesmumsdrossaphcvtloeioieagfu,lpiltlbdcehaolrneactlchseecesaphodtrrtioboaonntjnoetikshcctrawvioeviafisgettehitrlhsdiainoreonecscctaihueatoemltfwofecrdenltiahoretesernwseddnoasrtsabhetmsisirsepeoora.auvnmrpegcdreeclsodow,winchasetneoernd--r Vawipmncsrhera(cid:2)oontnhstrcsese.ei0prosa1tofnu;lruodptL,ecieaeda&rcslchheoiMcmigfvohaaembentdotrmht&scheuuownuWbnsinjtt,eryeiocv2atlev0iarve0(lssRer5io,t2)Sy1.Er9(cid:1)IseS9ntpu8or.ds)2ari,e1mttnieo,ndtirslgpadsaara(cid:2)lniyinldhytem.ha0iegdeo1xhut;pUitlveetGnsarn,iitaeteelepdndldaocr,rseSteeiBtcsanaeisotspaseegaersacnsroohstts-fr,,
T of poor health outcomes (e.g., Sapolsky, 2000, 2004) and may personal control over their own life outcomes (rs (cid:1) .28 to .40,
account for some of the health problems lower-class individuals ps(cid:2).05).Importantly,thisrelationshipbetweensubjectivesocial
are prone to experiencing (Gallo & Matthews, 2003). Within class rank and increased personal control persisted even after
educationalsettings,lower-classindividualsarelikelytoanticipate controlling for objective indicators of social class, participants’
socialrejectionandthreat.Onthisimportanttheme,S.E.Johnson, ethnic background, and liberal (vs. conservative) political beliefs
Richeson,andFinkel(2011)havedocumentedthatstudentsfrom (Krausetal.,2009).
relatively lower-income families felt more socially rejected and This second hypothesis has been particularly informative in
had greater concerns about their own academic competency in understandingthelinkbetweensocialclassandhealthoutcomes.
comparisontomoreaffluentstudentsataneliteprivateuniversity. Onthispoint,empiricalevidencefindsthatupper-classindividuals
Earlier in this emergent empirical literature, Croizet and Clare experience more positive health outcomes, in part, because of
(1998)foundthatwhenacademictestsareframedasdiagnosticof perceptions that they can personally control and regulate their
ability,studentswithparentswhohadlowerprestigeoccupations reactionstolife’sstressors(W.Johnson&Krueger,2005,2006).
werepresumablymoreanxiousaboutconfirmingnegativeexpec- Otherstudiessuggestthatanelevatedpersonalsenseofcontrolcan
tations about their lower ranking social group, and as a result, protect lower-class individuals from the poorer perceived health,
552 KRAUSETAL.
reduced life-satisfaction, and depression that often accompanies environment, greater positive evaluation of making the same
theirclasscircumstances(Lachman&Weaver,1998). choicesasothers,andreducedgeneticinfluencesonbehavior.In
We expect class influences on the personal sense of control to contrast, the personally agentic self-concepts of upper-class indi-
manifestinotherfacetsofthesocialself.Forinstance,upper-class vidualsshouldenhancefocusoninternaltraitsinself-expression,
individuals may exhibit heightened personal control over the ex- increase positive evaluation toward making unique choices, and
pressionandregulationoftheirownemotionsininteractionswith give rise to heightened genetic influences on behavior. Select
others(e.g.,Gross&John,1998).Onthispoint,Coˆte´,Gyurak,and
studiessupportthesepredictionsthatderiveourthirdhypothesis.
Levenson (2010) have recently documented that people from
In the domain of self-expression, we expect upper-class indi-
upper-classbackgrounds,asassessedwithpersonalincome,dem-
vidualstofavorinternaltraitswhenengaginginself-expression.In
onstrated greater ability to up regulate, or express upon demand,
contrast, the communal self-concepts of lower-class individuals
disgustinresponsetofilmclipsthatevokethisemotion.Buoyed
shouldenhanceself-expressionsthathelptheindividualblendinto
bythebeliefintheirownsenseofcontrol,upper-classindividuals
the surrounding social environment. In one study that brings this
may be prone to overestimating the influence they wield over
prediction into focus, upper-class adolescents from Iceland, mea-
blishers. ed broadly. pvtthoaidartntuhiaectlhuhseliaimgrrhalseoyorwcraeiacarttl-eucsoalaolulsftyscvocbomoetiuleninesgtv.eieArnptsuahpraotptsne,terhw-eichlillriaucsvshstorictaneotsitmouhnrmna,uv,unempitgpiigreehersa-t(ctcKeloarrnsoistmsrinibpniucadktcie-t, sstruparoietnsdtab(neye.goth.u,es“loyscmcduaerpstac,”triiob“nesisllttyhat”eu)mssroeefllavttheiesvierbptyoaruelosniwtnseg,rw-ucenlraiesqsmueaodrieonlldeiiksvceieldynuttasol,
one of its allied puot to be disseminat 1oeesn9fid9suo0,pr)pws.eeThr-dihcciehlsatsisnepsncoitssneimdtsoiovfdtihdceauolstanltolsrofoawlanegidsre-nsaecatcynsodwrtheiuetchposiptnnaesgrtt-hercuelfciaortsrssinooicuntirhadetlihvspiierdedlurvcaheelsysp.ptiowotnihls-l waacinpluhstpleooteirvvaitanrieeatdnewniddccseaea,dtte(Wesetao.egrthli.ynd,aieta“nsgIgtc’heremseirb.seUetaanslctildhln”ae;gsmLsHbasodraeterlihvfatfueoe&sbre(sm2neE0rcdove0eras9elts)iitoinennfionasutl,eendl1rfdam-9te9asxt2hap)oanr.fetdsRpiswneihoh-sydeneseariepraccatrahhesl
Association or al user and is n HMISneyodlpfri-voeCitdCohuneosacmielsspm3tWsu:niLlalolDwSeeevrl-efC-lColpaosnMsceIonprdtesi,vPiWedruhsaoelnrseaWallsyiUlAlpDgpeeenvrte-ilCcolpass weiallioeehmrsik,geiwhnnlgtiyat-hrcyclaartsescsdlehepaonasottrileaonlenetndsevsipsrtaokrrenielsmlnsetes’dnsetttj,sho,abwpteaitnrrheevenoimtrlsvcoifnhrregiolmdalriekmmnealibydnldaegtlnoeed-rcisliatanrlsetrossosfltehatmehoierr-
al du importance of their children’s curiosity and independence (cf.
n Psychologice of the indivi cisneodngTisnvheiiutdiosvufeafalctsroennwpdtereeornclh.ceayiTvveoehfestslehoeeewnicreotrrhw-ecaolttarealsndpsdspienrtnadhicirsvioeeiudsdgutthaohlrstea,hapwetphrilsaeeirnsaeseacsotehunfeptrapaeelngrvs-riocerlacoatinseas-rl Khdteriongehdnhne—lni,gc1bhi9eytss6w9fo;hroniKcmehusoipsnnredoeriocvgweieds,nsue—2arl0asp0tita4orr;anenLnstaotmsr’etihtaeucclo,ann2secs0x-e0tr.pe3tl)ia.oteTndshissoocflaiatttlheceroifrginncdithiinivlge-
ericaal us mhoewnttihnedsiefflefrreenltatwesaytsosohtohuelrds.gOivneeriusseetfouldwiffaeyreonfttchoinnckeinpgtioanbsoouft Class-related tendencies toward communion and personal
mn agency in self-expression are also reflected in aesthetic prefer-
Aso thissocialself,andcapturedinourthirdhypothesis,centersupon
hted by the y for the per tmtwoootdheeblreooxfatadegndetnitmhcayetnitnshiMeoniansr:dkiuCvsiod&muamKluictnoainyocanemi(vare,esf2e0or0rfe3tdh,e2t0os1e0lafs),awtshdheeicfchionnreejdofeibnryst eEestnnurcjuroeogyspg.eeldeaFsncoaorAgueamnxitneraysrmitcmphalanuers,sbihcah,ciegwkxhgthe-risroccnuhhanolcdoeosnln)vtewaidrienoursncematmhteeeodnmrtseie—nsldirkaieveftilhldyeeucmtatoilensrgec(poaponlelrsrtisfsotrthoneemnaylt
yrigolel socialconnectionstorelationshippartners(e.g.,familymembers, with conceiving of the self as shaped by contextual forces. In
This document is cophis article is intended s cPMtoaWhlnneoeadoersrsjiekcmonthuindsafesazirkvikl&eeeiesdnxA,,uKdtget2asheinl)0tne,ta0ccyc7ooiyaam;nnmp(cepMraeaeocis,farivtett2raeyarkn0srnuetd0toosds3fs,p&toote2ohucr0ietsKa1aoslf0sinrte)aotag,lhylmfrlweaoyamuhdsocpiiatoccssh,hnjo,eot1nrrria9sonenti9fltinde1todmur,nsitcovee2otddi’o0dmse1ubltml0hayiof;leuesftnPheoa(iaxetAuguiteteecblcshnnheo;utcolmeysitachene&i&asndst, cmapshoneuondrSssutooisrlcacend,silaaftwal-,llleyhscxcoioplcaalhrgilseneesscfgnsleetudinio-ecietfnnedfs—rceueserlceafuatn-lphtlcceoeofedennssaceitteinhlunfpder-teimcvcso(oieSndomsncufioemaabpflbsutdaeniiupsin&tojrooentnifhMneoeatrmanrmderdykodo,umdppsaeea,ellrtir2ensoso0rofnon0naafa5atgl)ilpe.vecanerhgcsoeyronoi,ncccoaeykrl,
T
John, 1998; Wiggins, 1991). In Hypothesis 3, we predict that choice. Specifically, upper-class individuals’ enhanced personal
lower-classindividuals’increasedcontextualfocusshouldleadto agency should increase preferences to make unique choices that
acommunalself-conceptdefinedintermsofinterdependenceand help these individuals stand out from others. In contrast, the
connections to others. In contrast, upper-class individuals’ solip- communalself-conceptsoflower-classindividualsshouldincrease
sistictendencieswillleadthemtoconceptualizetheselfinterms commonchoicesthatpromoteblendinginwithothers.Empirical
of individual agency and to think about the self in terms of research provides support for these predictions. When asked to
personal choice, autonomy, and one’s uniqueness relative to oth- choose a pen among many, lower-class individuals, measured by
ers.3
Class-basedmodelsofcommunionandpersonalagencyshould
shape the self-concept in the three domains of self-expression,
3In Hypothesis 3, our prediction does not contend that lower-class
choice,andthegeneticandtrait(asopposedtocontextual)deter-
individualslackagency.Rather,wecontendinsteadthatlower-classindi-
minants of behavior. More specifically, disposed to communal vidualsthinkoftheselfasfundamentallydefinedbysocialconnections,
self-concepts,lower-classindividualsshouldexhibitmoresponta- whereasupper-classindividualsthinkoftheselfasfundamentallyseparate
neous expressions of the self that emphasize blending into the andunique.
SOCIALCLASS,SOLIPSISM,ANDCONTEXTUALISM 553
parents’educationalattainment,weremorelikelytochooseapen thisarea,Turkheimer,Haley,Waldron,D’Onofrio,andGottesman
that resembled the other pens, reflecting their more communal (2003)reliedontwindatatoexaminevariabilityinintelligenceas
orientations.Incontrast,upper-classindividualsweremorelikely afunctionofsocialclassusingbiometricmodelsthatestimatethe
tochoosetheuniquepen,reflectingpersonallyagenticpreferences extent that intelligence among twins is due to genetic factors,
tostandoutfromothers(seeFigure2;Stephensetal.,2007).Ina shared environmental experiences, or nonshared environmental
second study, participants with a working-class occupation (i.e., experiences. With this approach, approximately 72% of the vari-
fire-fighters) reported feeling more positively about making the ability in intelligence of upper-class children, where social class
same choice as a friend (e.g., buying the same car as a friend), was derived from measures of maternal education, income, and
whereas participants with a master’s degree in business adminis-
occupation status, was attributable to genetic factors. In contrast,
tration felt irritated by making the same choice as a friend (Ste-
only approximately 10% of variance in intelligence among chil-
phensetal.,2007).
dreninlower-classenvironmentswasduetogeneticfactors.When
In more recent work examining social class influences on
examiningthesharedenvironmentalinfluencesonintelligence,the
choice,whenofferedapenasagiftforparticipatinginanexper-
patternwasreversed:Alargerproportionoflower-classchildren’s
ers. oadly. ismureensto,pfaerdtuicciaptaionntsalfraotmtailnomweenrt-,cwlaesrsebmacokrgerloikuenldys,toinadcecxeepdttihnemgeifat-; vroanrimabeinlittryeliantivinetetolliugpepnecre-cwlaasssacchcilodurnetned(Tfuorrkhbeyimtheereshtaarle.,d20en0v3i)-.
blished br uhpavpeer-acnlaospstpioanrtitcoipcahnotso,sebyacpoenntrafostr,twheemresmelvoeresl(iSkteelpyhteonsweatntalt.o, This important finding is in keeping with a broad assertion of
ed puminat 2011). As a final example of class-related differences in choice, osaulrietnhteoirny—dettheartmlionwinegr-cthlaesssoccoinatlexsteslfa—reanmdorheasposwinecrfeulbaenedn
one of its alliot to be disse lcsfooehwlrofs.etehrI-nneclcfsaoohsrnsirtatpraactsrhott,enicuficeppodpaneenrfrtae-stdcerleeartpsahsotaernpteacodrhtniogcesriepethaafetnoetrcrsolrhinekefpirenosdgeretlerffaodt(reSiantcecshprheohiasresetnetsfdhoaelrtitkhwiaenalr.gs-, rsineepssliiencdtaetalelted2c.tyuSeapalercsaibfoiifcliaatlyglye,,agmienonneagssaaccmhciopludlenretenodfrfiaonirfsae5nd0t%itnwoifunvpappraeiirar-bscillaaitssys-
on or d is n 201G1i)v.en the reasoning underlying Hypothesis 3, we would also fraamisieldiesinbultowonelry-c8la%ssoffaminitleilelesct(uTaulcakbeirl-itDyroabm,onRghecmhitludlrlean,
al Associatidual user an eemxnopcreepschtiinstemsmysmp—eprtaaotmhdeeritnvitce—apufaottorteneronxmsamiocfpaslreoo,cuaiassallcbaoeprhtapuvarierotdirciounrlabcraogsgeenlniiteniteoicndpmifofoleyrre-- Htwhaiatrthdsesontcr,oianTlgucerlrkashasessimmoaceyira,tmi&oondsFerbaasetktew,oe2teh0ne1r1gg)e.neneTtehicteospeboelfyhimnadvoiirnopgrhsriesslmautsgioganenssdt,
Psychologicof the indivi sctvatoirgduoeunndatgellsrryeptsoaofroutesrrn.cveIuinsrpopaenensmrsd-eecnenlalctessevs,tahutiaepntdpdaeirvlral-iondcwklua,astlmshseactyoehnxaetpnexrxpeftsoosss,rieowntuhipteohpifremurl-noocirwlqeaueseasrd-tcivrnlaaadinstiss-- bpprreeihHodaryiivcptitioizootirhnnegoss.bipssOeernr3sveoenpidsarolitvnahigedueepenspxcepyare,-cscwttlaaiatlrsiltosinbnigentdmhpiaoovtirindeutuplaipfkoleserr.l-ycsleatvoseseraxinlpdrcieovsrisdoultlhaaelrsiyr,
n e
caus andattributes,includingthoseattributesthataregenetically-based. self-concepts in more coherent self-descriptions or in cross-
merinal In contrast, the constraints of lower-class contexts may not so situationallyconsistentbehaviorrelativetotheirlower-classcoun-
hted by the Ay for the perso rBperraeoEddnmiilfcyeptniiorabinlrcleaodnlwensretiuvfrode&ridestfChrooeefmcgei,xeH1npy9erep–9so4est)nih.ovenisriosonf3m.geIennntegitnriocteurnpadrcebtdiroiesnapskoissnuigptipowonorstrkt(hciifns. ttctehhoreenpyitraertxdtrstae,.iftuiTsnpheapcaerttroh-icsessl,asdwseisslhfiteninrdteociatvssibdoelucosaitwalslemrcm-aocatnlcyathesbxsetthsimn.edAoidrlveoeimndfrguaeanetlhldsyesmasaboamlfyeettsholheiienfxetspsoh,rceowiswaesl
yrigolel expectlower-classindividualstodefinetheselfmorecentrallyin
opd s termsofhowitisintertwinedwithothercloserelationshippartners
This document is cThis article is intende (iilisnneseo,c.ddcgtietii.vhapv,lieeedAgnuearrdxaosoeltpnusene,pntcmtAtoissaafrnoyovrnfaei,lvlnsuaadTeteliiluduovfd-eniebdossyurat,waeole&distmthi’hseNtsri(oesnLetl—clhfus-tehoetrotnsdsat,.eenbfe1Weeimn9npei9t&a1iiwors)tn,ioCscwuturaololhkdfaceerkradlteeyhlsraeo,oisnm1sue9pehxpl9oopfp2rweet)tacr—h-ntocatnclttahefoos’ailsss-rt
thewell-beingoflower-classindividuals.
In this section, we have summarized our central predictions
regardinghowclass-basedsolipsisticandcontextualisttendencies
influence the self. Specifically, we have seen that lower- and
upper-class individuals define and experience the self in pro-
foundly different ways: Lower-class individuals appraise their
environmentsintermsofelevatedthreat,andtheydefinetheself
in more communal terms; upper-class individuals appraise the
Figure 2. Participant social class and preferences for picking unique
environmentintermsofanincreasedpersonalsenseofcontroland
(minority pen) versus common (majority pen) objects. Reprinted from
amorepersonallyagenticself-concept.Thesecoredifferencesin
“ChoiceasanActofMeaning:TheCaseofSocialClass,”byN.Stephens,
defining the self, we shall see in the next section, extend to how
H. M. Markus, and S. M. Townsend, 2007, Journal of Personality and
SocialPsychology,93,p.817.Copyright2007bytheAmericanPsycho- upper- and lower-class individuals perceive and understand the
logicalAssociation. socialenvironmentandotherindividuals.
554 KRAUSETAL.
Social Class and Social Perception: Construing Others (Graziano, Habashi, Sheese, & Tobin, 2007; Stinson & Ickes,
and the Social Environment 1992).
ResearchrelevanttoHypothesis4hasindeeddocumentedthat
Our second set of hypotheses pertains to how class-related lower-class individuals demonstrate greater empathic accuracy
solipsistic and contextualist orientations guide construals of the thantheirupper-classcounterparts(Kraus,Coˆte´,&Keltner,2010).
actions and intentions of others and the social environment. We In one study in this research, university employees with either a
focus on three broad areas of social cognition: empathy, attribu- high school or college education took a standard measure of
tion, and the components of attitudes and intergroup perception. empathic accuracy that required that they attempt to accurately
As summarized in Table 3, we hypothesize that the contextualist label, with emotion terms, different posed facial expressions
tendencies of lower-class individuals will lead them to greater (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002). On this test of empathic
empathy, the favoring of contextual attributions, and greater en- accuracy,thehighschooleducatedparticipantsprovedtobebetter
dorsementofsocialconstructivistconceptionsofgroupcategories. able to accurately identify the emotions in facial expressions
In contrast, the solipsistic tendencies of upper-class individuals relativetocollegeeducatedparticipants.Infollow-upexperimental
blishers. ed broadly. wdbieisllpileofbsseitaiaobsnosauoltciagatrttoeriudbpuwtciioathtnesgr,oeadrniuedcse.gdreeamtepraethnyd,ortsheemteenntdeonfceyssteontmiaalkiset wwptheoeirnrrsekko,inlnop)gwafroeetfrilct-aciplnloaawsunsptesp(rbeiniyrn-dciumslacoasecgsdiiacntlooinnctglthaeisaxnsntk.riSnaaubntebokrsuaectcqotaiumoecnpnoatnwlrtyeie,tdxhitntaoidnnivpuwiapdhrputiiecacrhli-spctamlhaneastyss-
ed puminat Hypothesis 4: Lower-Class Individuals Will Exhibit nipulatedtofeeltheywereoflowersocialclassperformedbetter
on or one of its allid is not to be disse EIEontinhbEdehemirsavsfo’niedtlcidiounetn,atdes1lns9Eth7imao9vn)pesinabattnehhedayntaCthcttaeoiltimlurededpexasparreaegsndsrdaiotmonfomsrUimagrpnspaoltefshreis-nCofbcolairaasmslissaltiiofoefns(aEobciobiual-lt t(rschBeiloaqaaTsnnurshsoiretineihnn-seaCrtmdehouvaahopadtevpnipneenta,marg-rgWcteteilhncahetislseposeeawomlniwfnetosrmdrt-iiiicgduvolhesinadtcnss,ulsteHioafslfiyisnlaoledr,otmoihnRvueoianrdttssdhiuoteeaints,lhssMd&ebeeieamnnPysdjeloeoudsnyim.nsotbnort,avhst2eeeu0rdb0Ettbl1hyey)ee,esaxwupTtphhrapieicsresdkhr-
Psychological Associatiof the individual user an ittVsanhhhfaftieaNesenmrrciawantKvicagaviltngyeiedoeaa,nftnseti,shtdnmaDog(tFoseuesetsrnioiDodjwc(dnerZiaharesasolu&tks,iahpinn,&aMetdeprBirceeMnaoesgciqtlavhtguineeeooisrtfntta,behs,eoa&edh1dtmhea9,pev9O2(rei4S0socn;’0hrydsK4s,sen)eComo.elfontrˆon,ttteehe´i2,omro0n&s&p0ea9eSHtw)xha.aphyaieEo—vdrmetie,etdhxpn1rapaac9tet,e9hris29siye0,)an.0tinhcIn5ndee-; sptsasShtttneEuruiodasddSpnyi,eslgesetwseiutn,irddemleyrtaoheac,nwitodsepmeddarretor-ehttrcssheielecpneaaioasprersnccaamcthnptaue,otnasrdtrweaitooteithechnuniiegscspinihaareognmffjoetuosdtwodch,tugneiimosniinreneegdampawsaootmurhintttrienoheotecidhnsnrkpes.isenRjadococuectibefcpiriaruiclinmlirncgaeitsancemttyrtoihevnoferwigtaeisiociwuttnthnhbitesoejwwenro(vcishettti.hh.iiegcvIewnh.aer,
n e volvesafamilyofemotionprocessesthatincludeempathicaccu-
caus contempt, sympathy) of their partner relative to upper-class par-
erial racy—theabilitytoaccuratelyreadothers’affectivestates(Ickes, ticipants. Moreover, following the interview, participants offered
Amson Stinson, Bissonnette, & Garcia, 1990; Levenson & Ruef, 1992); explanations of their interview performance that were coded for
yrighted by the olely for the per paGeorxhtoehtyteestnrmlisitonaltkoenhexg,adpit1cea9irinlni8ed3lnii;tvcnimieZkdaaeu(gkaAeilcs—noedumtterharsiemsel.o,iencwx2,t0ioetK0hrn9etr)lett;ho-neonaexsenrep,’dse&roepifmehnJyooocsttheiihoonetnl,hroseg2ci0o(ec0Lnma3telao;vgrteeiiBonosansnpros—osnnattshdhe&aeest, dIwbieaesfmlpoloreisgniottihotohedneaianlitntaetitrentrvrtiveiberiuwevtwiieoswntbasser”ct()eead.uog”sr.)e,.c“oIIInndhtikaeddxeewtupaeailnlglgiaiantnwtrttihibtcehuuitponioutenorrsfvci(cleeaow.ifgmf.eb,see“acIrbaiuodgsuihdett
This document is cophis article is intended s 2tetsuiem0oaa0Inlprn2iscas;httHohHfotyiecaonpnttofadhcitcoeeehcnrlnedsucss’,rtiiareseCucsm4c,ayt,co—lsiotwoirwtopeehnpleaasprott—-r,eceidls&dra,eitscolisRatntsaciitonpvhrecdseaaiotiatvsnolgei,didcuv1ulpae9aapsn9lcssec4trus)h-w.ercearilivlacrlseyisssnhiicannorsdewtoaihvsnehieediedruipgacplhaloesttnr.fecotnReerexpmed--- crtveceaoslinatetnAeasdwtlbseeylxnpsiinsetcreuhedcyraafoitovldthniorisaddmomtautaatpha,tnrleebseclnrrodesodaw’iar(cetKedetoirmormc-aecnoouonlntasrvittseoehiesrnxataosttcianunclmwad.du,leaieir2vrsasnit0itvtdemo1aeulr0sjeiau)fedl.adfnsiIcr’gatmotateometgspirdrosooenrHbaftthtyeayoeaxnprtttpthohlileyatenahrb,sifsenielt’luhssiieeetiswynnsmdech4oiteyfvotdiiiinlodsodianunwcistantch.eelguasrrs’---t
T forthisprediction.Forinstance,peoplewhoaremoreinterdepen-
lower-class individuals will be more likely to demonstrate physi-
dentintheirrelationships,suchasclosefriendsorindividualswith
ological linkage in their responses to other individuals during
heightened trait agreeableness, show greater empathic accuracy
socialinteractionsrelativetoupper-classindividuals.Preliminary
relative to their less agreeable, more independent counterparts
research supports this prediction. For instance, in one study, two
strangersplayedaboardgame(e.g.,Taboo)whiletheircardiovas-
cular reactivity was measured with an electrocardiogram and im-
Table3 pedance cardiography (Page-Gould, Koslov, & Mendes, 2012).
SocialClassandPerceptionsoftheSocialWorld During the interaction, participants from lower social class back-
grounds(e.g.,lowerfamilyincomeandeducation)showedphys-
Domain Lower-classcontextualism Upper-classsolipsism
iologicalresponsesthatwereempathicallylinkedtothoseoftheir
Empathy Empathicaccuracy,linkage, Reducedempathy interaction partner. More specifically, lower social class partici-
contagion pants’pre-ejectionperiod—ameasureofcardiaccontractilitythat
Causalexplanation Contextual Dispositional indexessympatheticnervoussystemactivation—wassignificantly
Inter-groupattitudes Socialconstructivist Essentialist
associatedwiththepre-ejectionperiodoftheirpartnerfrom1min
SOCIALCLASS,SOLIPSISM,ANDCONTEXTUALISM 555
earlier in the interaction. Upper-class individuals’ cardiovascular Hypothesis 5: Lower-Class Individuals Will Favor
reactivity was completely independent of that of their interaction Contextual Explanations, Whereas Upper-Class
partner.Moregenerally,wewouldexpectlower-classindividuals Individuals Will Favor Dispositional Explanations
to demonstrate greater physiological linkage in other ways, for
example,inempathicblushing(e.g.,Shearn,Bergman,Hill,Abel, Causal explanations of social events reflect a mixture of con-
& Hinds, 1990) or linked respiratory sinus arrhythmia—a physi- textual (or situational) and dispositional attributions. The relative
ological response associated with emotion regulation (Gyurak & weightgiventocontextualanddispositionalcausesshiftsaccord-
Ayduk,2008)andtonicpositiveemotionality(Oveisetal.,2009). ingtopersonalmotivestoassignblame(e.g.,D.T.Miller&Ross,
Forparallelreasons,wewouldexpectlower-classindividualsto 1975; Sherman & Kim, 2005), societal norms for explanation
show greater evidence of a third kind of empathic process— (Jellison & Green, 1981), perspectives taken as an actor or per-
emotion contagion—relative to their upper-class counterparts. ceiver (Jones & Nisbett, 1987), transient emotion (Keltner et al.,
Emotioncontagionreferstothetransmissionofemotionfromone 1993), and the individual’s cultural background (J. G. Miller,
interactionpartnertoanother,anditarisesthroughfacialmimicry, 1984; Morris & Peng, 1994). In Hypothesis 5, we predict that
ers. oadly. ecmepotitoionnsaolfexopthreerssiinvdeinveisdsuaolfs’oenme’ostiionntesra(Bctaiorsnadpea,rt2n0e0rs2,;aKnedllype&r- socLiaolwcelra-scslawssillcoshnatepxetscaaursealchexarpalcatneartiizoendsbinysryesdtuemceadticrewsoauyrsc.es,
ed publishminated br Broofaotremsnamdiena,tfelu2se0wn0c1ite)hd. lIobnwyreolsetehvaeerrlcssh—ofrsehtlroeawvitaenpdtowgtoreeras—toecrwiahelomcoplatriseossn,uamdloacrbmolnyitvoaerrrye- icwnlaiclsrlesbacesoenmdteosxroetcsi.laiGkleitvlhyernetaotthsa,itsta,rniwbduetdepirmtehdienicicsthatuehdsaetsrlaoonwfkeprre-ecrlslaaotsinvsaelintodouivtuciodpmupaeelrss-
one of its alliot to be disse gsdceoeevnrllseceoreaangltuoemettsohaneel.txi,hras2rmo0tioh0nma3en)dm.dsaIientdelfsar-’oredoepimmroemorcttstaiototenefsasetlwmroheofostpHifooeynnlpstsoeeitsnlheosevovsaicetseirad4tlh,pienKotcweroraeauurcrsst(ieAaonnondsf- atvgrnaiavdtseetd,ervuipepseerpyresdtrooa-ncyalaalssotcseconiinnadtlderionevlcviyde(nuHftaosylsrptooluitvhptheepseelirise-vcxe2ltsa)e.srosnTfaihrlneededsnieuvvcicideroduonantdlmhsirteeitonaontt.saaItnnstdrhiocbeouulnletde--
on or d is n whereinfriendsteasedeachother.Intheinteractions,participants pfoerrcseosna(el.go.u,tgcooamlse,straanitds)—soacicaelnetrvaelnctsomtoponinetnetrnoaflthdeisspoolsiiptsioisntaicl
al Associatidual user an wrcdeoihnsngottaualwgstei)eod;rnuethcilaanottiwotihsen,ertahrinneedairslimohncocioosatfmlilheceolearsemstlsialoetrtiaiveonemnkst—oobtimetohcneeaaim(rsiu.eferr.ime,ednoadrnien—gestireem,rxmcpiloeasnrritoetefonmcptpehatde-, sleoncRdiaselsseucaoprcpghonriattictvroeoHstseynapdovetahnreciesyitsyw5oe.fIhsnaaomvnepelbesestueandnydp,oamrnteraaatsyiuoinrnegasltophfhuossonfceaiasr.ulrcvlaesys,
Psychologicof the indivi hiendotusetcriaalectitoeionmnao.ntIidnonincsocoonfmtrtaehsert,ierlpauatpirvtpieecritp-ocatlnhatsessirwffrrhiieoenndwdeorrevepeorhrtithgeehdeceroxiupnresrpeiaeornefcnittnhagel psivpoaiadcrntuiietacstliypwwa(eene.rtagesl.t,wmh“eoWarrneehdaylsipkkaoeervedlyeptrotteoyogpe(ivelne.edgroe.i,rxcsphpeoloalcinrotaipnctotiaeoolxnrit?snu”foa)llf.ueLewnxoecpwaella,etnhrd-aiiatnsincocdronimmspofievnoeparrtaiitrnoytdniici)n--,
n e hostile emotions that were independent of the emotions experi-
ericaal us enced by their friend (Kraus, Horberg, et al., 2011). Importantly, wpohseitrieoansaulpepxeprl-ainncaotimonesp(aer.tgic.,iphaanrtdswweorrek,meofrfeorlti;keKlyluteogeelnd&orsSemditihs-,
Amson these results also highlight the enhanced empathy-relevant threat 1986).InasecondstudyconductedinFrance,participantswereasked
yrighted by the olely for the per rrpeeemoalBtacphttuaieivtioshleindsysitn4otg(,oHtwhuyeeepxpiorwtoentuonhputdehplsdeeitsoraf-lic1sngl)oadresitensahxtgacepstoreulcwaontcewtlceoehurwrpar-aeavccrrel-tyascsr.lesianvsiisnejduiwnidvedgdiimdvuiredeanulletsasvlesao’xnfpteleoterotviheaHentrecysde-’ t(tpoeeer.ogmep.x,slpeaol’nafsionbicrercthihutaaepvtaeiatodcirotincoiananslshtshitoeearft)uv.asigLafnsoiecwatttieetwirso-oucarlsksaespcrseo(rnpvstasoe.rnxtaitcnulieapealaxlvyneintcsdgu,etticaevaretsm)eu,gipenoexerrpidmzlea(adiern.kgeiedn.t,
This document is cophis article is intended s sgKcjcuplureadeerrsargcrsetim,nfri2iteecn0nlfde1tetisvh0evaol)aiin.dunbcuMggoeahsuol,tttssor,r,eoatottwhahhvteeeeetirrrlti,uwittnedghordeiaauvsnitvle,udniordaenuntehadoxtehlnpsepes’ecoebmetrlemispphothaosanitetvashisiotlieoiicnctrysaitoncebtfdcnraauidosvireettiahsnddc—ecuyroiaendil(snsFotdlomhetifoevtaciiuirdhnmpueospraaweklo&rsne-f. ddctDttiiilueoooautennnsebsaarothmlloipasecai,vxnaree1pteuxid9lsctabee8inpe(rs8enaea).tn(ang.i5lot.Is0,dnm’d%desipmeus)axoteorrprmeanttlocaasomtnntirtrtoeaoealnymtrtieets,ohpd)ntcaehson3rienam3rsmcee%mtovhecneonelrtonates)fUs—exsodtnt-unhabitatlenaheyldsidseto2iidnm0nrSae%tdetcsaiiutofeo(afl,1stenfu—i7rdntre%hevnwesdoc;ihkestsBiuesipmnrceoiegheans.uiddatavUiiisotssotpppnrRipisooabuelssu&lsriiy-----
T As well, upper-class individuals’ solipsistic focus on their own sia, where contextual explanations are normative (Grossmann &
goals and rewards may predispose these individuals to perceive Varnum, 2011). That these patterns emerge across different nations
certain positive emotions more accurately—such as pride— suggeststhatclass-basedpatternsofattributionstyleextendoverand
because research documents associations between experiences of aboveotherculturalinfluencesonattribution(e.g.,Choi&Nisbett,
pride and feelings of high status and achievement (e.g., Tracy & 1998).
Robins,2007).Finally,itwillbeinterestingtoinvestigatewhether Studiesusingmeasuresofsubjectiveperceptionsofsocialclass
intergroupinteractionsmoderateclass-basedpatternsofempathy. rankhaveyieldedsimilarresults.Acrossseveralstudies,Krauset
Forinstance,giventheincreasedphysiologicaldemandsofcross- al.(2009)askedparticipantstoexplainagraphshowingincreasing
group interactions with stigmatized others (e.g., Blascovich, economic inequality in the United States, the causes of everyday
Mendes, Hunter, Lickel, & Kowai-Bell, 2001), perhaps upper- life outcomes (e.g., being laid off at work), and the emotional
class individuals strategically engage in empathic responses with expressions of a focal person surrounded by others. In these
in-group members, where resource demands are less costly. The studies, lower-class individuals, measured in terms of subjective
empiricalstudyofsocialclassandempathyoffersmanypromising SES,offeredmorecontextualexplanationsofeconomicinequality
linesofinquiry. (e.g.,“it’sduetodifferencesinpoliticalinfluence”)andeveryday