sociability/impulsivity and caffeine-induced arousal: critical flicker/fusion frequency and procedural

18 Pages·2003·1.82 MB·English

Person. individ. Difl Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 713-730. 1995
nomagreP Copyright 0 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
019l-8869/95 $9.50 + 0.00
SOCIABILITY/IMPULSIVITY AND CAFFEINE-INDUCED
AROUSAL: CRITICAL FLICKER/FUSION FREQUENCY
AND PROCEDURAL LEARNING
pilihP J. ’,‘,rroC Alan D. 2gnirekciP and yerffeJ A. ’yarG
’ tnemtrapeD fo ,ygolohcysP etutitsnI fo ,yrtaihcysP ytisrevinU fo ,nodnoL eD yngipserC Park, nodnoL
5ES FA8 dna * tnemtrapeD fo ,ygolohcysP tS segroeG latipsoH lacideM ,loohcS ytisrevinU fo .nodnoL
remnarC ,ecarreT nodnoL SW17 ,ERO dnalgnE
(Received 27 October 1994)
ehT-yrammuS ecneulfni fo ytivislupmi/ytilibaicos ni decudni-enieffac lasuora stceffe saw detagitsevni
ni owt etarapes :stnemirepxe tnemirepxE 1 denimaxe lacitirc noisuf/rekcilf ycneuqerf egnahc serocs
)TFFCA( ni 60 ;stcejbus dna tnemirepxE 2 detagitsevni larudecorp gninrael ni 30 .stcejbus nI eht owt
,stnemirepxe stcejbus deviecer rehtie enieffac etartic (500 )gm ro .obecalp ehT nrettap fo stluser saw
tnetsisnoc ssorca htob :seiduts (1) a gnorts evitcaretni tceffe fo ytilibaicos sa( derusaem yb eht QPE
noisrevartxe )elacs yb obecalp/enieffac hcihw dewohs taht (a) stcejbus wol ni ytilibaicos dewohs eht tsetaerg
esaercni ni TFFCA dna denrael tsom rednu ,obecalp elihw eht esrever saw eurt rednu ;enieffac )b( stcejbus
hgih ni ,ytilibaicos dewohs on esaercni ni TFFCA dna denrael tsael rednu ,obecalp elihw eht esrever saw
eurt rednu ;enieffac dna (2) ni rehtien tnemirepxe did ytivislupmi sa( derusaem yb eht SPE ssenevislupmi
)elacs yltnacifingis tcaretni htiw .obecalp/enieffac ehT stluser era tnetsisnoc htiw s’kcnesyE etn( Biological
Basis of Personality, 1967) yroeht fo ytilanosrep ni gnitseggus taht stcejbus wol ni ytilibaicos era ylhgih
elbasuora rednu lasuora-wol )obecalp( tub desuora-revo rednu lasuora-hgih ,)enieffac( htiw eht esrever
nrettap fo stceffe gnidloh rof stcejbus hgih ni .ytilibaicos ehT snoitacilpmi fo eseht data rof eht evitcepser
selor fo ytilibaicos dna ytivislupmi stnenopmoc fo noisrevartxe ni detaidem-lasuora ecnamrofrep era
.dessucsid
LARENEG INTRODUCTION
ehT tpecnoc fo lareneg lasuora seunitnoc ot yalp an tnatropmi elor ni gniyfinu etarapsid stcurtsnoc
.g.e( lacitroc ,lasuora task ytluciffid and )noisrevartxe ni ytilanosrep ,ygolohcysp hguohtla stbuod evah
neeb desserpxe gninrecnoc eht eulav fo eht yratinu lasuora metsys sisehtopyh .g.e( Neiss, .)8891 ecniS
eht yrevocsid fo eht gnidnecsa lacitrocoluciter gnitavitca metsys [ARAS izurroM( & ,nuogaM ,])9491
htob laciteroeht stnempoleved .g.e( ,kcnesyE ;7691 syerhpmuH & ,elleveR )4891 and laciripme
ecnedive .g.e( ,nosrednA )4991 tsetta ot eht ytilitu fo lareneg lasuora .yroeht
s’kcnesyE )7691( nwonk-llew ledom assumes that strevortni and strevartxe reffid htiw tcepser ot
eht ytivitisnes fo rieht lasuora metsys and eht sdlohserht fo ARAS ytivisnopser ot yrosnes .noitalumits
strevortnI era said ot evah rewol esnopser sdlohserht and ni ecneuqesnoc rehgih lacitroc .lasuora nI
,lareneg strevortni era erom yllacitroc desuora and erom elbasuora nehw decaf htiw gnimocni yrosnes
.noitalumits ,revewoH eht pihsnoitaler neewteb noitcudni-lasuora and lautca lasuora is tcejbus ot eht
gnitaredom ecneulfni fo evitcetorp transmarginal noitibihni ;IMT( a evitcetorp msinahcem that skaerb
eht knil neewteb sesaercni ni lasuora and sesaercni ni esnopser htgnerts at hgih slevel fo :)noitalumits
rednu wol noitalumits .g.e( teiuq ro )obecalp strevortni dluohs eb erom elbasuora/desuora than
,strevartxe tub rednu hgih noitalumits .g.e( esion ro )enieffac strevortni yam ecneirepxe ,lasuora-revo
hcihw htiw eht noitacove fo 1MT yam dael ot rewol stnemercni ni lasuora as derapmoc htiw ;strevartxe
,ylesrevnoc strevartxe rednu wol noitalumits dluohs wohs wol ,ytilibasuora/lasuora tub rednu hgih
noitalumits yeht dluohs wohs ylevitaler rehgih stnemercni ni .lasuora
s’kcnesyE )7691( yroeht seod ton ekam a laciteroeht noitcnitsid neewteb rewop fo ytilibaicos
and ytivislupmi stnenopmoc fo noisrevartxe ot ecneulfni .ecnamrofrep hguohtlA eseht owt traits era
detalerroc ( = ,)05.0 emos srohtua .g.e( Carrigan, )0691 evah detseggus that yeht tneserper
tnednepedni ,srotcaf denibmoc rehtegot yb a tohs‘ gun ’gniddew ,drofliuG( )5791 fo .stpecnoc ,deednI
segnahc ni eht lairotcaf erutan fo s’kcnesyE ,ledom gnivomer eht ytirojam fo ytivislupmi smeti morf
eht kcnesyE ytilanosreP eriannoitseuQ QPE[ kcnesyE( & ,kcnesyE ])5791 noisrevartxe ,elacs erehw
* To mohw stseuqer rof stnirper dluohs eb .desserdda
713
411 pilihP J. rroC et al.
ylsuoiverp yeht demrof trap fo eht kcnesyE ytilanosreP yrotnevnI IPE[ kcnesyE( & ,kcnesyE ])4691
noisrevartxe elacs nilkcoR( & ,elleveR ,)1891 setacidni that hcus a noitcnitsid yam eb .detnarraw
ehT noitubirtnoc fo ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi stnenopmoc fo noisrevartxe ot detaidem-lasuora
ecnamrofrep sniamer an tnatropmi tub devlosernu issue ni ytilanosrep ygolohcysp ,yarG( .)1891 roF
as deton yb kcnesyE and kcnesyE ,)5891( eht ytivislupmi tnenopmoc fo noisrevartxe is netfo dnuof
ot eb erom evitciderp fo lasuora stceffe than eht ytilibaicos .tnenopmoc erehT is ecnedive ot wohs
that ,ytivislupmi and ton ,ytilibaicos netfo secneulfni ylevitatup detaidem-lasuora .ecnamrofrep sihT
erutaretil sessapmocne lacissalc gninoitidnoc .g.e( ,ttarraB ;1791 kcnesyE & ,yeveL ,)2791
lamredortcele sesnopser .g.e( ,htimS ampyR & ,nosliW ,)1891 and epyt-cimedaca evitingoc
ecnamrofrep syerhpmuH( & ,elleveR ;4891 ,elleveR ,syerhpmuH nomiS & ,dnalilliG .)0891 erehT
is osla evisserpmi ecnedive that eht noitcaretni fo lasuora and ytivislupmi smrofnoc ot eht
nosdoD-sekreY waL sekreY( & ,nosdoD ;8091 .g.e ,nosrednA ,)4991 gnidivorp rehtruf laciteroeht
troppus rof eht ecnatropmi fo ytivislupmi revo .ytilibaicos
,revewoH ereht is rehtona ydob fo yllauqe gnillepmoc ecnedive ot wohs that ,ytilibaicos and ton
,ytivislupmi stcaretni htiw lasuora ro detaler-lasuora .anemonehp roF ,elpmaxe nosliW )0991( dnuof
that ytilibaicos was detaler ot lanruid noitairav ni ,lasuora as derusaem yb skin ecnatcudnoc a(
ylevitaler tcerid erusaem fo ;)lasuora and atpuG )0991( dnuof ytilibaicos and ton ytivislupmi detceffa
labrev tnarepo gninoitidnoc rednu evitisop .tnemecrofnier ytilibaicoS and ton ytivislupmi osla has
neeb dnuof ot tcaretni htiw detroper-fles citegrene lasuora and emit fo yad stceffe no sustained
noitamrofni gnissecorp tasks .g.e( Matthews, seivaD & ,yelloH 1990a; Matthews, seivaD & ,seeL
.)b0991 esehT rettal sgnidnif yam eb detsartnoc ot eht sgnidnif fo elleveR and ,seugaelloc hcihw wohs
xelpmoc tub tnetsisnoc snoitcaretni neewteb ,ytivislupmi decudni-enieffac lasuora and emit fo .yad
,revewoH apart morf elleveR and ,seugaelloc wef stpmetta evah neeb edam ot etalupinam lasuora htiw
enieffac ni gniyduts eht evitcepser stceffe fo ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi stnenopmoc fo .noisrevartxe
,eroferehT eht tnereffid stluser detroper ni eseht seiduts thgim ylpmis tcelfer tnereffid -azilautpecnoc
snoit and snoitalupinam fo .lasuora
As s’kcnesyE yroeht .g.e( kcnesyE & ,kcnesyE )5891 seunitnoc ot etaicossa ytilibasuora/lasuora
htiw )QPE( noisrevartxe .e.i( ,)ytilibaicos etipsed ecnedive rof eht euqinu elor fo ytivislupmi osla(
deweiver yb kcnesyE & ,kcnesyE ,)5891 ti smees raelc that eht evitcepser selor fo ytilibaicos and
ytivislupmi ni detaidem-lasuora gninrael and ecnamrofrep deen .noitacifiralc ehT aim fo this repap
is ot ekam a noitubirtnoc ot eht noituloser fo this .melborp
,woN hguohtla ereht is laciripme troppus rof htob ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi ni gnitaidem eht stceffe
fo ,lasuora eno rojam melborp htiw eht gnitsixe ,erutaretil ni tcepser fo gniward snoisulcnoc ssorca
,seiduts has :neeb )1( eht tnereffid sdohtem desu ot ecudni ,lasuora and )2( eht tnereffid sepyt fo
ecnamrofrep selbairav deyolpme ot erusaem eht stceffe fo .lasuora tI dluow eb elbarised ot evah
suougibmanu stnega and secidni fo .lasuora kcolluB and dnalilliG )3991( deton that ot yduts eht elor
fo ytilanosrep and lasuora ti is yrassecen ot esu a gnigrevnoc serusaem hcaorppa ni hcihw yllaciteroeht
tnacifingis ytilanosrep serusaem era ,nekat lartnec suovren metsys lasuora is yllatnemirepxe
,detalupinam and ,lacigoloisyhpohcysp laruoivaheb and troper-fles lasuora serusaem era deyolpme
as esnopser .semoctuo
nI redro ot erolpxe eht pihsnoitaler neewteb ytivislupmi/ytilibaicos stnenopmoc fo noisrevartxe ni
gnitaidem eht stceffe fo lasuora no tnaveler-yllaciteroeht serusaem fo ,ecnamrofrep owt stnemirepxe
erew .detcudnoc nI tnemirepxE 1, eht stceffe fo noisrevartxe and lasuora ni lacitirc noisuf/rekcilf
ycneuqerf )FFC( egnahc serocs erew ;detagitsevni and ni tnemirepxE 2, a ylevitaler citamotua ssecorp
fo egdelwonk noitisiuqca osla( nwonk as larudecorp )gninrael was .deyolpme fI elbarapmoc stceffe
fo noisrevartxe and lasuora dluoc eb dnuof ssorca eseht yrev tnereffid ecnamrofrep sniamod neht eseht
stceffe dluow dnel elbaredisnoc troppus ot lareneg lasuora yroeht and pleh ot etanimircsid neewteb
eht evitcepser selor fo ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi ni detaidem-lasuora .stceffe
enieffaC was nesohc ot edivorp an suougibmanu tnega fo ,lasuora as ti is nwonk ot tceffa all
sretemarap fo lareneg lasuora .g.e[ skin ,ecnatsiser elcsum ,noisnet and ralucsavoidrac serusaem
,yffuD( .])2691 enieffaC is osla nwonk ot evah lufrewop stceffe no eht lartnec suovren metsys redaL(
z8 ,ecurB ,)9891 evitingoc sessecorp .g.e[ ;ecnaligiv ees namrebeiL )2991( rof a ]weiver and
detroper-fles doom ,reyahT( .)9891 ehT lareneg lasuora stceffe fo enieffac era thguoht ot tluser morf
eht gnikcolb fo eht ,rotaludomoruen enisoneda ,redynS( ,)4891 hcihw flesti has tnetop yrotibihni
stceffe no ,lacigoloisyhportcele lacimehcoib and laruoivaheb serusaem ,hsriH( .)4891 elleveR has
ytivislupmi/ytilibaicoS dna decudni-enieffac lasuora 715
edam evisnetxe esu of enieffac ni gnitset eht evitcaretni stceffe fo ,lasuora ytivislupmi and emit fo
yad no ecnamrofrep .g.e( elleveR te al., .)0891
ehT FFC and larudecorp gninrael stnemirepxe erew demia at gnisserdda eno tnatropmi ,tniop that
fo gninimreted eht evitcepser selor fo ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi ni detaidem-lasuora .ecnamrofrep
neviG that eht tsom tnecer snoitalumrof fo s’kcnesyE yroeht fo noisrevartxe era ylivaeh dethgiew
sdrawot ,ytilibaicos neht eht naikcnesyE noitisop thgim eb that ytilibaicos lliw eb eht yek tnenopmoc
fo noisrevartxe ni gnitaidem decudni-enieffac lasuora .stceffe nI tsartnoc ot s’kcnesyE ,noitisop eht
syerhpmuH and elleveR )4891( yroeht seugra that ytivislupmi dluohs eb erom tnatropmi than
ytilibaicos ni gnitaidem eht stceffe fo ,lasuora yllaicepse nehw enieffac is desu as eht tnega fo
.noitcudni-lasuora gnidloH eht snaem fo lasuora noitcudni tnatsnoc ssorca htob ,stnemirepxe eht esu
fo FFC and larudecorp gninrael dluohs edivorp a lufrewop tset fo eht gnigrevnoc ytidilav fo eht selor
fo ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi ni gnitceffa detaidem-lasuora .ecnamrofrep
TNEMIREPXE I
Introduction
FFC is eno fo eht tseb snaem yb hcihw ot erusaem lacitroc lasuora ,narruC( ;)0991 ti has neeb desu
ot troppus s’kcnesyE lasuora-noisrevartxe sisehtopyh .g.e( ,htirF ;)7691 reyemletroG and nameiW
)2891( and ,regrebnurG ,utelaS remeB and rhotS )2891( detroper that FFC sdlohserht era ylhgih
detalerroc htiw cihpargolahpecneortcele )GEE( serusaem fo ;lasuora and FFC sdlohserht evah osla
neeb detaler ot detroper-fles serusaem fo evitcejbus ssentrela .g.e( ,naejdnarG ,arehcsaB Martin &
,rebeW ;7791 ,mortsdnurG ,grebmloH namredeL & ,tdetsviL .)7791 etipseD eht tcaf that enieffac is
evitceffe ni gnicudni ,lasuora and that FFC is evitisnes ot segnahc ni ,lasuora eht erutaretil is lacoviuqe
as ot eht esicerp pihsnoitaler neewteb eseht owt srotcaf redaL( & ,ecurB .)9891 sesoD fo enieffac up
ot 500 gm mees ton ylbailer ot tceffa FFC ycneuqerf ,ecurB( ,ttocS redaL & Marks, ;6891 ,eliF dnoB
cR ,retsiL ;2891 ,ottouN Mattila, alappeS & ,onnoK ;2891 tfiwS & ,ydalpiT .)8891
ehT eruliaf ot dnif tnetsisnoc snoitaler neewteb decudni-enieffac lasuora and FFC sdlohserht yam
eb ni egral trap detubirtta ot eht eruliaf fo tsom stroper ot redisnoc eht ecneulfni fo laudividni
secnereffid ni .ytilibasuora/lasuora A revossorc noitcaretni ,neewteb rof ,elpmaxe -xe-noisrevortni
noisrevart and decudni-enieffac lasuora dluow eb detroper as a eruliaf ot evresbo a main tceffe fo .gurd
kcnesyE .g.e( )7691 has gnol deugra rof ytilanosrep ot eb dedulcni ni gurd ,seiduts fi rof on rehto nosaer
than ot ecuder eht rorre ;mret ,revewoh tsom gurd seiduts htiw human sreetnulov evah derongi
ytilanosrep .srotcaf
ehT erutan fo eht dezisehtopyh evitcaretni tceffe fo noisrevartxe-noisrevortni and obecalp/enieffac
ni FFC sdlohserht is osla ton tuohtiw its .smelborp hguohtlA ni lareneg s’kcnesyE )7691( yroeht states
that strevortni evah rehgih slevel fo lasuora than ,strevartxe ereht is ecnedive that 1MT nac dael ot
rewol slevel fo lautca lasuora ni eht ,trevortni as derapmoc htiw eht ,trevartxe rednu ylhgih gnisuora
snoitidnoc kcnesyE( & ,kcnesyE ,)5891 yllaicepse ni eht esac fo lacigoloisyhpohcysp .sretemarap
htrowselggiW and htimS )6791( dnuof that strevortni dewohs a retaerg skin ecnatcudnoc esnopser
)RCS( ot an 80 Bd ,enot tub strevartxe dewohs retaerg SCR ot a 100 Bd ,enot gnitseggus 1MT ni
strevortni and a rehgih etulosba level fo lasuora ni .strevartxe A ralimis gnidnif was detroper yb
,selwoF streboR and ,)7791(legaN ohw dedulcnoc that strevortni dewohs retaerg“ ssenevisnopser at
wol stimulus seitisnetni and eht enilced ni ssenevisnopser at hgih sulumits seitisnetni as a tluser of
lanigramsnart ”noitibihni (p. 142). htimS et .la 891( ,)l using enieffac sv( )obecalp ot ecudni ,lasuora
dnuof egral basal and cisahp lasuora (as derusaem yb lamredortcele )sesnopser ni strevortni rednu
,obecalp tub this gnidnif was desrever rednu enieffac erehw strevartxe detibihxe eht tsetaerg
ssenevisnopser gnitroppus eht sisehtopyh fo transmarginal noitibihni fo .esnopser kcnesyE and
kcnesyE )7691( dnuof that strevortni detavilas erom ot nomel eciuj deilppa ot eht ,eugnot tub nehw
deriuqer ot wollaws eht eciuj strevartxe detavilas erom than ,strevortni gnitseggus that eht evitatup
esaercni ni stimulus ytisnetni del ot esnopser noitibihni ni eht .trevortni ,eroferehT ti dluow mees that
lasuora-revo nac dael ot lautca stnemerced ni eht esnopser fo lacigoloisyhpohcysp sretemarap ,htimS(
;3891 ,htimS nosliW & ,senoJ .)3891
ehT esoprup fo tnemirepxE 1 was yllaitnesse :dlofowt )1( ot enimreted rehtehw FFC sdlohserht
era evitisnes ot ytilanosrep X decudni-enieffac lasuora ,stceffe and )2( ot enimaxe eht pihsnoitaler
617 pilihP J. rroC re al.
neewteb ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi stnenopmoc fo noisrevartxe ni gnitaidem eseht .stceffe ehT yduts
did ton aim ot etagitsevni elbissop emit fo yad stceffe eseht( erew dleh tnatsnoc yb lacitsitats .)snaem
ehT noitciderp desab no s’kcnesyE )7691( yroeht is that strevortni dluohs wohs eht ,tsetaerg and
strevartxe eht ,tsael ytilibasuora (as nwohs yb a -erp ot ksat-tsop esaercni ni PPC )sdlohserht rednu
;obecalp rednu ,enieffac eht lasuora-ed fo eht trevartxe dluohs eb emocrevo and eht retaerg ytilibasuora
fo eht trevortni yam eb dedore eud ot lasuora-revo and eht evitpursid stceffe fo .IMT
Method
Subjects
ytxiS Ss, 28 selam naem( ega = 26.54 ,ry ? DS = )18.7 and 32 selamef 49.52( + )80.7 erew
detiurcer hguorht a lacol repapswen .tnemesitrevda Ss deviecer a tnemyap fo 0.00 rof taking trap
ni eht .yduts
Personality questionnaires
ehT noisrevartxe elacs morf eht kcnesyE ytilanosreP eriannoitseuQ QPE[ kcnesyE( & ,kcnesyE
])5791 was desu ot edivorp a erusaem fo ytilibaicos ;)toS( and eht ssenevislupmi elacs morf eht
ssenevislupmI )EVI( ,eriannoitseuQ fo’trap eht kcnesyE ytilanosreP selacS SPE[ kcnesyE( & ,kcnesyE
,])1991 dedivorp a erusaem fo ytivislupmi .)pmI( ehT eritne seriannoitseuq erew ,deretsinimda tub
ylno eht toS and pmI selacs era desylana .ereh
Critical flicker/fusion frequency
ehT P’FC apparatus detsisnoc fo a lortnoc tinu hcihw dewolla eht retnemirepxe ot retla eht
noisuf/rekcilf ,ycneuqerf and a yalpsid tinu rof eht noitatneserp fo eht ilumits ot eht .S ehT
noisuf/rekcilf yalpsid tinu desirpmoc a latem ebut 2.5 mc dia and 16 mc gnol htiw a tfos eceip-eye
at eno dne rof eht S ot ecalp against eht ;eye eht S deweiv eht ilumits htiw eno eye and dleh a hand
revo eht rehto .eye edisnI eht ebut erew owt ,sesnel and a der thgil gnittime edoid ,)DEL( os degnarra
that eht S saw a ylmrofinu detanimulli der dleif nehw eht DEL was .no ehT DEL was dehctiws yldipar
ffo/no yb snaem fo gniyrav eht egatlov decudorp yb eht lortnoc .tinu ehT ycneuqerf was deyalpsid
ot eht retnemirepxe yb snaem fo a latigid ycneuqerf retem hcihw was trap fo eht lortnoc .tinu
A dohtem fo stimil erudecorp was detpoda ni hcihw eht S deweiv eht rekcilf gnidnecsa morf 25
zH ro gnidnecsed morf 50 .zH sihT dohtem sdleiy owt :sretemarap )1( eht ycneuqerf at hcihw eht owt
tnettimretni lights esuf otni a elgnis tpecrep noisuf( )dlohserht and )2( eht ycneuqerf at hcihw eht elgnis
tpecrep setarapes ot mrof owt gnirekcilf lights rekcilf( .)dlohserht ehT naem fo noisuf and rekcilf
sdlohserht stneserper eht PPC dlohserht .)TFFC( ehT S was detcurtsni ot yas ’woN‘ as noos as eht
gnikcilf lights had desuf gnidnecsa( )dlohserht and as noos as eht desuf lights detrats ot rekcilf
gnidnecsed( .)dlohserht eerhT gnidnecsa and gnidnecsed sgnidaer erew nekat ni gnitanretla .redro
ehT snaem fo gnidnecsa and gnidnecsed trials erew ;detupmoc sgnidaer hcihw erew retaerg than
45 erew dedulcxe ni redro ot ecuder eht rorre fo .tnemerusaem Readings erew ylerar rewol than 30
zH and ylerar rehgih than 40 .zH
Design
ngised detsisnoc fo owt slevel fo lasuora enieffac( etartic 500 gm and .)obecalp noitacollA fo
The
30 Ss ot hcae gurd noitidnoc was )-isauq( modnar htiw eht tnemeriuqer fo an yletamixorppa lauqe
noitubirtsid fo selam and selamef ni eht obecalp :P/M( )61/41 and enieffac etartic :P/M( )61/41
.snoitidnoc naideM splits erew demrofrep no )QPE( toS naidem( = )41 and )SPE( pmI naidem( = ,)9
gnimrof owt spuorg fo hgih and wol ;srerocs esoht gnillaf at eht naidem erew dedulcxe morf eht
sesylana ees( elbaT 1 rof llec .)sezis
emiT fo gnitset was ton yllatnemirepxe detalupinam as a rotcaf tub rehtar dedrocer rof esu as a
etairavoc ni eht .sesylana emiT was dedoc ot mrof eerht slevel gnidnopserroc ot eerht :sdoirep )1( l-9 1
a.m. ,)71 )2( 11 l-.m.a .m.p )42 and )3( 3-l .m.p .)91 yaw-owT sesylana fo ecnairav
(n = (n = (n =
(ANOVAs) erew detcudnoc no eseht emit sdoirep rof toS and pmI yb obecalp/enieffac ;snoitidnoc
ytivislupmi/ytilibaicoS and decudni-enieffac lasuora 117
elbaT .1 elpmaS sezis fo ytilanosrep X obecalp/enieffac sllec
retfa gnidracsid sS ta eht naidem
enieffaC etartic 005( )gm obecalP
:QPE toS
woL 5I 31
hgiH 21 IS
:SPE pmI
woL 31 5I
hgiH 5I 31
on tnacifingis s’f( > )02.0 main ro noitcaretni stceffe erew ,dnuof gniwohs that eht main srotcaf fo
tseretni erew ton dednuofnoc yb emit fo .gnitset Ss erew dnilb ot obecalp/enieffac noitartsinimda and
eht retnemirepxe was dnilb ot hgih/wol toS and pmI spuorg seriannoitseuq( erew derocs retfa eht
.)tnemirepxe
Procedure
erew dlot that yeht dluow eb deriuqer ot ekat a knird hcihw thgim niatnoc enieffac and that yeht
Ss
dluow eb deksa ot mrofrep a elpmis retupmoc task. A tnesnoc mrof gnibircsed eht stceffe fo enieffac
was ;deretsinimda Ss gnitroper a ylimaf yrotsih fo traeh esaesid erew dedulcxe morf eht .yduts rehtiE
enieffac etartic 005( )gm ro obecalp was neht deretsinimda yb laro elcihev devlossid( ni a eerf-ragus
detulid-retaw tnerruckcalb .)knird Ss erew ton deriuqer ot abstain morf enieffac noitpmusnoc roirp
ot eht .tnemirepxe yletaidemmI gniwollof obecalp/enieffac noitartsinimda .e.i( nihtiw 5-3 ;nim os
ereht dluoc eb on tnacifingis lacigolocamrahp tceffe fo ,)enieffac FFC ,sdlohserht and neht toS and
pmI ,serusaem erew .nekat retfA 25 nim gnirud( hcihw Ss detelpmoc lareves seriannoitseuq ton
tnaveler ot this )repap Ss erew decudortni ot a ecnaligiv task. ehT ecnaligiv task deniatnoc on kcabdeef
ro tnemecrofnier (data ot eb detroper )erehwesle and detsal 25 .nim nopU noitelpmoc fo eht task .e.i(
50 nim retfa obecalp/enieffac ,)noitartsinimda eht FFC tset was .deretsinimda-er
gnitseT koot ecalp ni a dnuos detaunetta latnemirepxe .elcibuc ehT latnemirepxe serudecorp erew
devorppa yb eht scihtE eettimmoC fo eht etutitsnI fo .yrtaihcysP
Results
elbaT 2 shows eht snaem and standard snoitaived rof )QPE( ,toS )SPE( ,pmI and -erp and ksat-tsop
FFC ,sdlohserht and eht snoitalerroc neewteb eseht .serusaem
ehT ecnereffid neewteb gnidnecsa and gnidnecsed CFFs at eht gninnigeb fo eht tnemirepxe was
tnacifingis t[ = 2.13, .f.d = 59, 0.051, tub yb eht dne fo eht tnemirepxe this ecnereffid had
P <
deraeppasid t[ = 0.17, .f.d = 59, ns]. ehT naem ecnereffid neewteb gnidnecsa and gnidnecsed FFC
egnahc serocs was tnacifingis t[ = 1.99, .f.d = 59, P = 0.051, eht naem esaercni rof gnidnecsa ( 1.36,
+ DS = )48.3 gnieb retaerg than that rof gnidnecsed ,64.0( + )47.2 FFC .serocs ehT naem
gnidnecsed/gnidnecsa FFC desaercni morf eht gninnigeb ,03.73( t )62.2 ot eht dne ,12.83( + )98.2
fo eht tnemirepxe t[ = 2.47, .f.d = 59, P < 0.051, gnitseggus that lasuora desaercni revo eht esruoc fo
eht .tnemirepxe
elbaT .2 snaeM dradnats( ,snoitaived SD) dna nosraeP tnemom-tcudorp snoitalerroc rof )QPE( ytilibaicos
.)toS( (EPS) ssenevislupmi )pmI( dna lacitirc noisuf/rekcilf ycneuqerf (CFF) sdlohserht
naeM (SD) 2 3 4 5 6
I. :QPE toS 89.31 )16.4( **xl4.0 41.0 0.0 I 60.0 - 50.0
.2 :SPE pmI 25.9 )09.4( - 71.0- 21.0- - 1.0 I - 02.0
.3 FFC ICSA 28.63 )79.3( - **55.0 **74.0 **53.0
.4 :FPC 1SED 87.73 )53.3( - - 3.0 I * **56.0
.5 :FFC 2CSA .83 7I )64.3( - **35.0
.6 :FFC 2SED 52.83 )41.3( 1 - - - -
* ,50.OCP ** .10.Oc-P
,ISEDUCSA gnidnecsed/gnidnecsA sdlohserht nekat erofeb ;ksat ,2SEDI2CSA gnidnecsed/gnidnecsa
sdlohserht nekat retfa .ksat
718 pilihP J. rroC te .la
-pmI +pmI
Placebo m Caffeine
Cit. SOOmg
.giF .1 naeM ( ? 1 )MES FFC dlohserht egnahc serocs )TFFCA( rof )QPE( wol toS( - ) dna hgih toS( + )
selbaicos dna )SPE( wol pmI( - ) dna hgih pmI( + ) sevislupmi rednu obecalp dna enieffac etartic (500 )gm
.snoitidnoc ylnO eht toS - toS/ + X obecalp/enieffac noitcaretni dehcaer lamrof lacitsitats ;ecnacifingis
revewoh hgih sevislupmi rednu enieffac osla dewohs a egral dna tnacifingis esaercni ni ,TFFCA sa derapmoc
htiw eht naem fo eht rehto eerht spuorg :eton( a evitisop IFFCA eulav stneserper na esaercni ni FFC
sdlohserht ssorca eht .)ksat
ehT FFC erusaem desu rof sisylana fo ytilanosrep srotcaf detneserper eht ecnereffid neewteb naem
gnidnecsed/gnidnecsa sdlohserht )TFFC( nekat -erp and ksat-tsop ;TFFCA( an esaercni ni IFFCA was
detneserper yb a evitisop ,eulav a esaerced yb a evitagen .)eulav egA fo Ss erew ton detalerroc htiw
TFFCA r[ = - 0.05, 0.051.
P >
TFFC at eht start fo eht tnemirepxe did ton reffid htiw tcepser ot obecalp/enieffac snoitidnoc and
ereht was on noitcaretni neewteb obecalp/enieffac and rehtie fo eht ytilanosrep selbairav .)50.0
(Ps >
sihT detacidni that yna tceffe fo eseht stnemtaert no TFFCA dluow ton eb dednuofnoc yb laitini TFFC
.seulav
nI redro ot enimreted rehtehw eht stceffe fo pmI/toS ni gnitaidem decudni-enieffac lasuora no
TFFCA yam evah neeb dednuofnoc yb ,xes yb eutriv fo thgiew secnereffid and thus a elbissop
ecnereffid ni eht ycaciffe fo enieffac ot ecudni ,lasuora eht noitubirtsid fo pmI/toS serocs ni
xes X obecalp/enieffac sllec was denimaxe yb yaw-owt ANOVAs. ehT stluser delaever on tnacifingis
stceffe sP( > .)50.0 nI ,noitidda eht noitubirtsid fo thgiew ni hgih/wol toS and pmI X obecalp/enieffac
sllec was denimaxe ot edulcxe eht ytilibissop that eht stceffe fo ytilanosrep thgim evah neeb thgiew
.detaler Again on tnacifingis stceffe erew dnuof .)50.0 ehT snoitalerroc neewteb ’sS thgiew and
(Ps >
toS r[ = - 0.0611 and pmI r[ = 0.0061 erew ton .tnacifingis
etarapeS yaw-owt sesylanA fo ecnairavoC (ANCOVAs) rof pmI/toS yb obecalp/enieffac rof
ACFR, using emit fo yad as a ,etairavoc delaever a tnacifingis evitcaretni tceffe fo toS yb
obecalp/enieffac F[ = 5.55, .f.d = 1,50, P < ;50.0 .giF ;)1 on niam effects fo toS F[ = 0.02, .f.d = 1,50,
0.051 ro obecalp/enieffac F[ = 0.82, .f.d = 1,50, ;150.0 and a gnorts etairavoc tceffe fo emit
P > P >
fo yad F[ = 4.69, .f.d = 1,50, ;50.0 p = - 0.2931. roF eht ANCOVA gniniatnoc ,pmI ereht was
P <
on main stceffe fo pmI F[ = 0.34, .f.d = 1,5 0.051 ro obecalp/enieffac F[ = 0.49, .f.d = 1,5 1,
1, P >
0.051, and on tnacifingis noitcaretni neewteb eseht srotcaf F[ = 2.08, .f.d = 1,5 1, ;150.0 emit
P > P >
ytivislupmi/ytilibaicoS and decudni-enieffac lasuora 719
yadfo was again tnacifingis F[ = .f.d = 1,5 1, eton( eht ecnereffid ni rorre
4.23, P < 0.05; p = - 0.277
.f.d gnivig esir ot a ylthgils gnireffid etairavoc .])tceffe
ehT evoba pmI X obecalp/enieffac ,tceffe hguoht yllacitsitats ,tnacifingisnon did suggest that ereht
thgim evah neeb a kaew tceffe fo pmI ni gnitaidem decudni-enieffac .lasuora noitcepsnI fo .giF 1 osla
demees ot wohs rehgih TFFCA rof hgih sevislupmi rednu ,enieffac an tceffe that slellarap that devresbo
rof hgih toS rednu .enieffac nosirapmoC fo eht naem rof hgih sevislupmi rednu enieffac htiw eht
denibmoc naem fo eht rehto eerht spuorg lla( elbarapmoc ni naem )serocs did laever a tnacifingis
ecnereffid t[ = 2.36, .f.d = 54, gnitniop ot an tceffe fo enieffac ni ylhgih evislupmi Ss.
P < 0.051,
nI redro ot enimreted eht euqinu snoitubirtnoc fo toS and pmI ni gnitaidem decudni-enieffac lasuora
no ,TFFCA owt rehtruf ANCOVAs erew .nur esehT ANCOVAs erew lacitnedi ot esoht detroper
,evoba tub htiw eht noitidda fo owt )dezidradnats( tcudorp-ssorc smret toS( X obecalp/enieffac and
pmI X )obecalp/enieffac yletarapes deretne as setairavoc erofeb eht main srotcaf erew deredisnoc eht(
rorre .f.d was .)64 gniretnE eht toS X obecalp/enieffac noitcaretni as a etairavoc del ot a noitcuder
ni eht oitar-F rof eht pmI X obecalp/enieffac noitcaretni morf 2.08 ot 1.08 ;)03.0
(P = 0.156) (P =
elihw gniretne eht pmI X obecalp/enieffac noitcaretni as a etairavoc del ot a noitcuder ni eht oitar-F
rof eht toS X obecalp/enieffac noitcaretni morf 5.55 )20.0 ot 3.37 .)70.0 esehT data suggest
(P = (P =
ecnairav palrevo neewteb toS and pmI ni rieht noitcaretni htiw ,obecalp/enieffac yb eutriv fo rieht
evitisop noitalerroc Y[ = ;84.0 elbaT 21.
oT tnuocsid yllanif eht ytilibissop that toS and pmI thgim ekam euqinu snoitubirtnoc ot
decudni-enieffac lasuora stceffe no ,TFFCA eht sum fo hcihw adding ot rieht etarapes ,stceffe a
etisopmoc erusaem gnitneserper( eht elpmis noitammus fo toS and )pmI was demrof naidem( split
at erocs fo )42 and a noisserger ledom was nur hcihw deniatnoc main stceffe fo ,obecalp/enieffac toS
and ,pmI and owt noitcaretni :smret toS X obecalp/enieffac and toS + pmI X obecalp/enieffac
detupmoc( morf dezidradnats stcudorp-ssorc fo pmI/toS and .)obecalp/enieffac ehT main stceffe erew
ylbicrof deretne otni eht ledom and eht noitcaretni smret erew dewolla ot retne yb esiwpets .noisserger
ehT lanif ledom deniatnoc ylno eno :mret toS X obecalp/enieffac F[ = 5.98, .f.d = 1,48, ;150.0
P <
this dewohs that pmI did ton add evitciderp ecnairav ot that deniatnoc ni toS .enola
Discussion
ehT stluser dewohs that htob ytilibaicos and ytivislupmi demees ot eb detaicossa htiw
decudni-enieffac ,lasuora as derusaem yb segnahc ni FFC sdlohserht )TFFCA( revo eht ,tnemirepxe
tub that eht stceffe fo ytivislupmi erew yradnoces ot esoht fo .ytilibaicos erehT was on main tceffe
fo obecalp/enieffac no .TFFCA ehT ecnatropmi fo ytilibaicos ni gnitaidem eht stceffe fo enieffac ni
eht tneserp yduts suggests that suoiverp seruliaf ot dnif a tsubor tceffe fo enieffac no FFC sdlohserht
yam eb detubirtta ot eht tcaf that tsom lacigolocamrahpohcysp seiduts did ton redisnoc eht elbissop
ecneulfni fo .ytilanosrep
woL selbaicos rednu obecalp dewohs egral ,TFFCA saerehw rednu enieffac yeht dewohs rellams
TFFCA gnitseggus( lasuora-revo and transmarginal .)noitibihni hgiH selbaicos dewohs an lautca
noitcuder ni TFFCA rednu ,obecalp and a dekram esaercni ni TFFCA rednu enieffac .giF( .)1
Assuming that eht latnemirepxe noitautis was yldlim gnisuora detroppus( yb eht lareneg esaercni ni
TFFC ssorca eht task), neht eseht stluser era ylgnorts evitroppus fo s’kcnesyE )7691( sisehtopyh that
strevortni era erom elbasuora than strevartxe and tcejbus ot a evitcetorp msinahcem lanigramsnart(
)noitibihni that sevres ot tibihni rehtruf stnemercni ni lasuora dnoyeb a lacitirc tniop fo hgih lasuora
.fc( kcnesyE & ,kcnesyE ;7691 selwoF te ,.la ;7791 ,htimS ;3891 htimS te al., 1981, ;3891
htrowselggiW & ,htimS .)6791 esehT data add troppus ot lareneg lasuora yroeht ,nosrednA( )4991
and thgilhgih eht ecnatropmi fo rojam ytilanosrep srotcaf ni lareneg .lasuora
ehT gnidnif that wol selbaicos dewohs rewol TFFCA rednu ,enieffac derapmoc htiw ,obecalp is
elbarapmoc htiw eht gnidnif that hgih tiart yteixna Ss and suoixna stneitap slaudividni( ni a hgih etats
fo )lasuora evah ylevitaler wol FFC sdlohserht .g.e( ,edylC 198 ;1 ,namgurK .)7491 ehT egral TFFCA
ylevitceles gnoma hgih sevislupmi/selbaicos rednu enieffac is osla tnecsinimer fo s’htirF )7691(
gnidnif that hgih )IPE( strevartxe wohs desaercni lasuora rednu esion .e.i( lasuora .)noitcudni
,revewoH as IPE noisrevartxe is desopmoc fo ytilibaicos and ,ytivislupmi ti is ton raelc morf s’htirF
720 pilihP J.
COIT et al.
data ot hcihw tnenopmoc eht tceffe fo esion was .elbatubirtta ehT tneserp stluser suggest that
ytilibaicos thgim evah neeb eht erom tnatropmi fo eht owt .stnenopmoc
Basal TFFC erew nekat retfa enieffac etartic had neeb .deretsinimda roF this ,nosaer eht noitaulave
fo basal level fo IFFC was ton detpmetta esuaceb fo eht ytilibissop that eht feileb fo gnivah nekat
a gurd yam evah detceffa .ecnamrofrep sihT tcepsa fo eht ngised yam eb nees ot evah dekrow ot eht
egatnavda fo eht noitaulave fo ytilanosrep X obecalp/enieffac stceffe no IFFCA esuaceb feileb
gniwollof gurd noitartsinimda was elbarapmoc at eht gninnigeb and eht dne fo eht :tnemirepxe
erofereht ylno eht lacigolocamrahp tceffe fo enieffac etartic dluoc evah detceffa TFFCA evas( eht
ytilibissop that feileb fo gurd noitca and lautca gurd noitca yam evah detcaretni ni emos railucep .)yaw
rehtonA tcepsa fo eht ngised hcihw deredner sisylana fo basal TFFC fo detimil eulav was eht tcaf that
Ss erew ton deksa ot niarfer morf enieffac noitpmusnoc roirp ot eht yduts ees( lareneG .)noissucsiD
hguohtlA yranimilerp sesylana delaever on noitcaretni neewteb rehtie fo eht latnemirepxe srotcaf
and emit fo ,yad this gnidnif tsom ylbaborp stcelfer small llec sezis and dluohs ton eb deterpretni as
gniwohs that emit fo yad seod ton tcaretni htiw pmI/toS obecalp/enieffac ni gninimreted .TFFCA
X
neviG that eht tneserp yduts demrifnoc that TFFCA is an evitceffe xedni fo decudni-enieffac lasuora
and that eht stceffe fo ytilanosrep era tnetsisnoc htiw s’kcnesyE )7691( laciteroeht ,ledom eht deliated
sisylana fo eht elor fo emit fo yad thgim mrof eht sucof rof erutuf .seiduts ehT gnorts pihsnoitaler
neewteb emit fo yad and IFFCA seod suggest that a elpirt noitcaretni neewteb -lanosrep
yti X lasuora X emit fo yad .fc( elleveR te al., )0891 thgim eb dnuof using .TFFCA nI yna ,tneve emit
fo yad did ton mees ot tceffa eht ytilibaicos X obecalp/enieffac noitcaretni tceffe detroper ni this .yduts
hguohtlA tnelis no eht noitseuq fo emit fo yad ,stceffe eht tneserp stluser od ton dnel troppus ot elleveR
te al.‘s )0891( ,gnidnif and eht syerhpmuH and elleveR )4891( ,yroeht that ytivislupmi has a retaerg
elor ot yalp than ytilibaicos ni gnitaidem eht lasuora tceffe fo .enieffac
fO eht owt stnenopmoc fo ,noisrevartxe ytilibaicos and ton ytivislupmi was detaler ot ytilibasuora
as derusaem yb .TFFCA esehT stluser dluow mees ot wohs eht eulav fo using TFFCA as a erusaem
fo detaler-ytilanosrep lasuora ,stceffe as llew as gnithgilhgih eht ecnatropmi fo ytilanosrep ni
gninialpxe eht stceffe fo enieffac nopu .TFFCA ehT stluser edivorp troppus rof s’kcnesyE noitisop
that sesserts eht yramirp elor rof ytilibaicos ni eht stceffe fo noisrevartxe nopu detaler-lasuora
.ecnamrofrep
TNEMIREPXE 2
noitcudortnI
ehT pihsnoitaler neewteb ytivislupmi/ytilibaicos and detaidem-lasuora ecnamrofrep is ton yltcerid
desserdda yb lacigoloisyhpohcysp ,seiduts hcihw sucof no sretemarap fo nwonknu ecnatropmi ot
lautca .ruoivaheb ,eroferehT ot add laciteroeht thgiew ot eht sgnidnif gnitaler ot FFC sdlohserht
detroper ni tnemirepxE 1, a yrev tnereffid mrof fo ylevitatup detaidem-lasuora ecnamrofrep was
:nesohc a epyt fo citamotua egdelwonk noitisiuqca ,ssecorp osla derrefer ot as larudecorp gninrael
ro evitingoc skills gninrael .g.e( ,nnamtraH namponK & Nissen, ;9891 ,ikciweL akswezyzC &
,namffoH .)7891
ehT larudecorp gninrael task deyolpme ni this yduts was delledom retfa ,ikciweL lliH and toziB
,)8891( ohw deriuqer Ss ot sserp snottub gnidnopserroc ot eht spatial noitisop fo a tegrat stimulus no
a retupmoc .rotinom ehT tegrat stimulus devom neewteb ruof snoitacol no eht ,rotinom and eseht
stnemevom erew rehtie elbatciderp .e.i( dewollof a ciliceps )elur ro modnar .e.i( on selur denimreted
eht tnemevom fo eht tegrat stimulus). ikciweL te dnuof that noitcaer semit )sTR( ot eht elbatciderp
al.
tegrat stnemevom erew yltnacifingis retsaf than esoht ot eht modnar tegrat ,stnemevom gnitacidni that
Ss deriuqca gnikrow‘ ’egdelwonk fo eht gniylrednu erutcurts fo eht task. Ss dluoc ton sserpxe and
did ton eciton eht erutcurts fo eht task, gnitseggus suoicsnocnu .gnissecorp ehT cisab tceffe detroper
yb ikciweL te al. is yrev .tsubor r-toC ,)4991( using a egral elpmas fo 150 Ss ikciweL( et al. desu ylno
enin ,)stsigolohcysp had on melborp ni gnitacilper eseht .stluser
hguohtlA kciweL te al. )7891( demialc that ni larudecorp gninrael “. . . eht tcejbus seriuqca emos
mrof fo evitiutni egdelwonk tuoba snrettap fo ilumits and woh ot ssecorp meht . . .“, ,tehcurreP ogellaG
and yvaS )0991( dewohs that what Ss ylbaborp nrael ni eht ikciweL te al. )8891( task is ycneuqerf
noitamrofni gninrecnoc eht elbaborp tnemevom fo dellac-os elbatciderp and modnar
ytivislupmhytilibaicoS dna decudni-enieffac lasuora 721
target .stnemevom nI eht ikciweL te al. task, modnar/elbatciderp trials era dednuofnoc yb ycneuqerf
fo epyt fo tegrat tnemevom hcihw( sesirpmoc eht larudecorp gninrael :)elur elbatciderp trials,
derapmoc htiw modnar trials, evah a rehgih ytilibaborp fo .ecnerrucco sihT gnidnif seod ton etadilavni
eht task; ,rehtar tehcurreP fe al.‘s )0991( krow shows that gninrael tuoba ycneuqerf noitamrofni is
latnemadnuf ot ynam smrof fo gninrael .g.e( lacissalc and tnarepo ;gninoitidnoc ytilibaborp fo
stimulus-stimulus, ro sulumits-esnopser ,)ecnerrucco-oc and nac eb ylisae derusaem ni a ylhgih
evitisnes TR .mgidarap
larudecorP gninrael has lareves segatnavda nehw deilppa ot eht tset fo ytivislupmi/ytilibaicos and
decudni-enieffac .lasuora ,yltsriF ti is assumed ot eb a latnemadnuf ssecorp hcihw yna elbaiv yroeht
fo ytilanosrep must address. ,yldnoceS ti yllausu sevlovni rotom/sulumits noititeper and is erofereht
ylekil ot eb evicudnoc ot eht pu-dliub fo noitcaer noitibihni .fc( ,kcnesyE )7591 and lasuora-ed .fc(
,kcnesyE .)7691 ,yldrihT eht gninrael ssecorp is thguoht ot eb ylevitaler ,citamotua gnivlovni wef
suoicsnoc gnissecorp ,secruoser os erofereht gnilur tuo yradnoces stceffe fo .ytilanosrep ,ylhtruoF
larudecorp gninrael has ton neeb detagitsevni ni eht txetnoc fo s’kcnesyE ,yroeht erofereht its yduts
swolla esicerp laciteroeht snoitciderp ot eb edam ni eht ecnesba fo suoiverp hcraeser ,sgnidnif thus
gnidiova eht melborp fo .noitcid-tsop ,yltsaL eht esu fo larudecorp gninrael snepo up wen hcraeser
seuneva ni ytilanosrep ygolohcysp hcihw yam nehtgnerts links neewteb nwonk ytilanosrep stpecnoc
.g.e( ,noisrevartxe ,lasuora and eht nosdoD-sekreY )wal htiw a suotiuqibu mrof fo gninrael ,ikciweL(
)6891 assumed ot eb devlovni ni egaugnal ,noitisiuqca noitazilaicos ,sessecorp laicos skills ,gninrael
.cte
Assuming that larudecorp gninrael is decneulfni yb level fo ,lasuora latnemirepxe snoitciderp yam
eb devired morf s’kcnesyE )7691( :yroeht strevortni dluohs nrael ,tsom and strevartxe dluohs nrael
,tsael rednu obecalp esuaceb( fo ’strevortni ,rehgih and ’strevartxe ,rewol level fo ;)lasuora saerehw
rednu ,enieffac eht lasuora-ed fo eht trevartxe dluohs eb emocrevo and eht roirepus ecnamrofrep fo
eht trevortni yam eb dedore eud ot lasuora-revo and eht evitpursid stceffe fo .IMT Assuming that
larudecorp gninrael is osla detceffa yb decudni-enieffac ,lasuora and that eht tceffe fo lasuora is
detaidem yb ,noisrevartxe ti yam eb detciderp that a elbarapmoc nrettap fo stceffe ot that detroper ni
tnemirepxE 1 dluohs eb dnuof rof larudecorp gninrael ni tnemirepxE 2.
Method
Subjects
ytrihT Ss erew detset ni all, 15 selam and 15 selamef dega neewteb 81 and 30 ry fo .ega Data rof
eno S ni eht obecalp noitidnoc erew tsol gniwo ot retupmoc disk .rorre ,suhT eht elpmas desu rof
sisylana desirpmoc 29 Ss, 15 selam naem( ega = 25.77 ,ry + DS = )99.2 and 14 selamef
,00.42( + .)88.3 Ss erew detiurcer hguorht a lacol repapswen tnemesitrevda and deviecer 00.5E
.tnemyap enoN fo eseht Ss had devres ni eht tsrif .tnemirepxe
Design
ehT ngised detsisnoc fo owt slevel fo lasuora enieffac( etartic 500 gm and .)obecalp noitacollA fo
15 Ss ot hcae gurd noitidnoc was )-isauq( modnar htiw eht tnemeriuqer fo an yletamixorppa lauqe
noitubirtsid fo selam and selamef ni eht obecalp :F/M( )8/6 and enieffac etartic :F/M( )7/8 .snoitidnoc
Ss erew dnilb ot obecalp/enieffac noitartsinimda and eht retnemirepxe was dnilb ot hgih/wol
noisrevartxe and ytivislupmi spuorg eriannoitseuq( data erew derocs retfa eht .)tnemirepxe ehT
tnemirepxe was nur neewteb 9 a.m. and 1 .m.p ytilibaicoS and ytivislupmi erew derusaem ni an
lacitnedi rennam ot tnemirepxE 1.
Procedural learning task
ehT task was ylraen lacitnedi ot that detroper yb ikciweL ;8891 erehw a etelpmoc noitpircsed
et al. (
yam eb .)dnuof ehT noisrev ni eht tneserp tnemirepxe :dedulcni (1) wand and hcuot neercs daetsni(
fo a draobyek htiw hcihw ot ekam eht ,)esnopser and )2( a noitcuder ni eht latot rebmun fo stnemges
morf 17 ot 15.
ehT task was desopmoc fo 15 etarapes ’stnemges‘ ro( .)skcolb hcaE tnemges deniatnoc 48
,skcolb-bus and hcae kcolb-bus detsisnoc fo evif tegrat .stnemevom ehT evif tegrat stnemevom fo hcae
kcolb-bus erew detangised as rehtie )1( modnar ro )2( elbatciderp ees( .)noitcudortnI nI ,tcaf eht tsrif
227 pilihP J. rroC te al.
owt tegrat stnemevom erew syawla ,modnar and eht last owt tegrat stnemevom erew syawla
elbatciderp eht[ dr3 tegrat tnemevom fo hcae lairt-evif ecneuqes was dedulcxe morf eht sesylana
esuaceb ti was ton fo rehgih ycneuqerf than eht modnar trials tehcurreP( te al., .])0991 ,suhT hcae
tnemges deniatnoc 240 tegrat ,stnemevom depuorg otni 48 skcolb-bus fo evif tegrat .stnemevom ehT
evif tegrat stnemevom nihtiw hcae kcolb-bus erew derrefer ot as slairt‘ .’5-l ehT ylno noitpecxe ot
eht evoba selur was tnemges :41 all tegrat stnemevom erew ,modnar gnitsisnoc fo hctac‘ .’slairt
)1( fI eht gnidecerp tegrat tnemevom had neeb ,latnoziroh
Predictable trials (4-5)proceduraZ rules.
neht eht txen tegrat tnemevom dluow eb ;lacitrev )2( fi eht gnidecerp tegrat tnemevom had neeb
,lacitrev neht eht txen tegrat tnemevom dluow eb ;lanogaid and )3( fi eht gnidecerp tegrat tnemevom
had neeb lanogaid neht eht txen tegrat tnemevom dluow eb .latnoziroh esehT selur denimreted a
mumixam fo 12 tnereffid evif lairt .secneuqes hcaE fo eseht erew detaeper ruof semit latot( = .)84
esehT trials detaloiv eht selur rof eht elbatciderp trials and
Random trials (I-2) procedural rules.
erew .modnar-isauq
llA 48 skcolb-bus erew ylmodnar detneserp dezimodnar( rof hcae )S htiw eht noitcirtser :taht )1(
eht tsrif lairt was ton detciderp morf eht gnidecerp lairt .e.i( eht ht5 tegrat tnemevom fo eht yletaidemmi
gnidecerp lairt-evil ;)ecneuqes and )2( eht tegrat reven deniamer at eht emas noitacol no owt trials
ni .noisseccus
ehT neercs dnuorgkcab was ,kcalb and eht owt gnitcesretni ,senil hcihw detarapes eht neercs otni
yllauqe dezis quadrants, erew etihw as was eht gnivom tegrat eht( tegrat desirpmoc an ,ksiretsa .)*
ehT tegrat deraeppa yllartnec ni eht quadrants. ehT tnemevom emit fo eht tegrat was )tsomla(
,suoenatnatsni and was detaitini yb eht S ’gnihcuot‘ eht neercs htiw a wand. ehT tegrat aera was denifed
as a 2 mc radius dnuora eht .tegrat ehT tegrat devom ylno fi ti had neeb ’dehcuot‘ htiw eht wand.
ehT tnemevom fo hcae tegrat was deinapmocca yb a lacisum eton euqinu ot hcae fo eht evif ;slairt
eht ecneuqes fo seton was nesohc ot elbmeser eht nwonk-llew emeht enut fo nevetS s’grebleipS mlif
esolC sihT enut depleh ot etacramed eht skcolb-bus fo trials, hguohtla
Encounters ofthe Third Kind.
eht ecnacifingis fo eht skcolb-bus was ton denialpxe ot Ss.
Data reduction and scoring
roF hcae tnemges eht naem TR rof hcae fo eht evif trials was .dedrocer esehT yrammus data
dettimrep eht noitaluclac fo detatilicaf sTR no elbatciderp trials siht[ was detaluclac yb gnitcartbus
eht naem TR fo elbatciderp trials 4 and 5 morf eht naem TR fo modnar trials 1 and 2 lairt( 3 was derongi
ni eht ;sisylana ees tehcurreP ;])0991 this detneserper larudecorp .gninrael naeM serocs ssorca
et al.,
stnemges 13 and 15 erew desu ot etupmoc eht citotpmysa erusaem fo .ecnamrofrep sTR hcihw
dedeecxe 1 tes erew dedulcxe morf eht noitaluclac fo naem ;ecnamrofrep noitcepsni fo eht raw data
delaever that sTR ylerar dedeecxe 0.5 ;tes regnol sTR erew rorre sesnopser .g.e( eud ot eht latnedicca
gnippord fo eht wand).
Procedure
ehT noitartsinimda fo obecalp/enieffac was lacitnedi ot tnemirepxE 1. gniwolloF obecalp/enieffac
,noitartsinimda eht ytilanosrep serusaem erew .nekat retfA 30 ,nim Ss erew decudortni ot eht
deziretupmoc gninrael task. yehT erew detneserp htiw eht retupmoc neercs htiw eht tegrat .e.i( an
,ksiretsa )* ydaerla tneserp ni eno fo eht quadrants; neht yeht erew detcurtsni ni eht tcerroc esu fo eht
wand and eht hcuot :neercs nettirw snoitcurtsni erew neht :deussi
“As uoy nac ,ees eht neercs is dedivid otni quadrants. A tegrat )*( lliw evom neewteb eseht
quadrants and ruoy task is ot hcuot hcae tegrat as tsaf as elbissop htiw eht wand ni eht rennam
ydaerla debircsed ot .uoy A ecitcarp doirep swollof ot esirailimaf uoy htiw eht task.
Remember
that your response should eb tsaf and accurate. esaelP hcuot ’OG‘ ot start.”
A trohs ecitcarp noisses neht ,decnemmoc and ecno this was etelpmoc and Ss had detartsnomed
that yeht dluoc esu eht hcuot/dnaw neercs ni eht etairporppa ,rennam yeht erew dlot that eht main trap
fo eht task dluow start. Ss detaitini eht task yb gnihcuot a ’OG‘ xob detacol ni eht ertnec fo eht neercs