Snail Transmitted Parasitic Diseases. Volume II

343 Pages·2018·101.91 MB·English

by  Malek, Emile A

Snail-Transmitted
Parasitic Diseases
Volume II
Author
Emile A. Malek, Ph.D.
Professor of Parasitology
Department of Tropical Medicine
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine
Tulane University Medical Center
New Orleans, Louisiana
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Malek, Emile Abdel, 1922-
Snail-transmitted parasitic diseases.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Parasitic diseases—Transmission.
2. Gasteropoda as carriers of disease. I. Title.
RC119.M25 616.9’6 79-15250
ISBN 0-8493-5269-X (v. 1)
ISBN 0-8493-5270-3 (v. 2)
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PREFACE
Research on snail-transmitted diseases has continued at a considerable pace during
the last twenty years, and several investigators have made valuable contributions to
our knowledge of these diseases. I have, therefore, felt for some time that a text is
needed which contains only information about the major infections or diseases of the
world which are transmitted by snails, and in which each disease is considered in much
greater detail than is usually provided by textbooks on general, medical or veterinary
parasitology.
The objective of this book is to present an up-to-date account of these infections or
diseases. Its scope of interest encompasses research workers, graduate students in med-
ical and veterinary parasitology and malacology, practicing physicians and veterinari-
ans, those interested in general parasitology and zoonosis, and government health
planners, especially those interested in the epidemiology and control or prevention of
these diseases.
The majority of the snail-transmitted infections are caused by digenetic trematodes;
some are due to certain metastrongyle nematodes. The very few tapeworms which uti-
lize snails as intermediate hosts are not considered because they do not cause significant
infections. Although it is realized that parasitic diseases comprise those caused by vi-
ruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and helminths, rarely are any except helminths trans-
mitted to humans and domestic animals. Therefore I feel that Snail-Transmitted Par-
asitic Diseases is an appropriate and correct title for the book.
The infection caused by each of the trematodes or nematodes considered in this
book is called by a name derived from that of the parasite which causes it. In each
chapter, particular emphasis is placed on the geographical distribution of the parasites,
their developmental cycle, the morphology of the adult parasites and their larval
stages, the snail species involved, the snail-helminth relationships, the epidemiology or
epizootiology of the infection, its zoonotic significance, the pathogenesis and pathol-
ogy, immunity, diagnosis, treatment and control. Throughout the chapters a distinc-
tion has been made between infection and disease. An infection with a helminth does
not always produce a disease.
I have attempted to provide information in each chapter based on my own experi-
ences and those of colleagues, together with that found in the vast world literature on
the subject. In addition to valuable consultations with many of my colleagues in the
United States, visits abroad during the last three years have enabled me to exchange
information with investigators in other countries. Actually, some sections of the book
were partly written during three assignments to Colombia and to Senegal, and during
brief stays in Iran, Egypt, England, the Netherlands, and Brazil.
In the preparation of the book, some limitations have had to be imposed: first, on
the number of parasites to be included, and secondly, on the literature to be cited. Of
the very large trematode group, only those forms which infect humans, subhuman
primates and domestic animals are considered. Only some of those infecting wild mam-
mals and birds are included. Also excluded are those which infect lower vertebrates.
The literature on the parasites which are considered is so voluminous that I had to
exclude some reports. However, this does not reflect on the significance of the infor-
mation contained in the publications excluded. This is especially the case with Volume
I, Chapter 1, where the trematodes are treated as a group, and a discussion is included
of their biology and other aspects. In the same chapter, the snail hosts are also treated
as a group, and various aspects are discussed, but only a few literature citations are
made. In coverage of such a vast subject, errors and omissions are to be expected. I
should be thankful if these would be brought to my attention for possible consideration
should there be a revision of the text.
Acknowledgments are due to many. My gratitude goes first to the late Dr. George
R. La Rue and the late Dr. Ma C. Chandler, for their instruction and for their stimu-
lating me to acquire a combined knowledge of trematodology and malacology. My
deep appreciation is due to my wife Carolyn and to our children Rebecca, Christopher,
and Steven, for their constant encouragement, assistance, understanding and patience.
Moreover, my wife and Rebecca have given invaluable editorial help. I should thank
all my colleagues and past and present students in the Tulane Department of Parasi-
tology for consultation and help, especially Dr. Paul C. Beaver. During my teaching
in the Sudan and my twenty years at Tulane, advanced parasitology students and pub-
lic health and medical students have brought up interesting and stimulating points
which were taken into consideration in the information provided in this book. Valuable
literature, especially old publications, was obtained from the Faust Parasitology Li-
brary in our department, and many thanks are due to Miss Helen Day, the librarian.
The invaluable assistance of Mrs. Andrea M. Cucullu Smith, in the preparation of the
line drawings, is gratefully acknowledged. I would like to thank my colleague Dr.
Wojciech A. Krotoski for many stimulating discussions and for sparing the time to
assist with the photographic work. My students Frank Cogswell, Jean-Paul Chaine,
and Dr. G. H. Sahba have also assisted in photography. Many associates have contrib-
uted material or photographs, and grateful acknowledgments are made in the captions
accompanying these items. Special thanks are due to Mrs. Myra B. Hamm for aid and
patience in the preparation of the typescript. Finally, grateful appreciation is due to
the publishers, CRC Press, particularly the coordinating editors Ms. Marsha Baker
and Mrs. Benita Segraves, for their interest and constructive criticism.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
This book covers the infections or diseases that are caused by certain helminths
which are transmitted by snails. These conditions fall under two categories viz., the
trematodiases and the nematodiases. The trematodiases are dealt with first, in Volume
I and in Chapters 1 through 15 of Volume 11, and then the nematodiases will follow
in Chapter 16, Volume II. Trematodiases which are transmitted by snails are caused
by flukes of the digenetic trematodes of flatworms. Nematodiases are infections, usu-
ally causing diseases, of which the etiologic agents are some species of parasitic nema-
todes (round worms) of the superfamily Metastrongyloidea, members of which are
commonly known as metastrongyles. These are parasitic nematodes of vertebrates, and
most of them require gastropods (terrestrial and aquatic snails and slugs) for the de-
velopment of their early larval stages. The trematodiases are by far more numerous
and of wider geographic range than the nematodiases which are transmitted by gastro-
pods.
It is realized that many parasitic helminths can cause serious diseases and consequent
economic loss. However, although the title of the book refers to diseases, a distinction
is made, in the various chapters, between infection and disease. This applies to the
helminths of humans and those of animals. Infection rates in a human or in an animal
population represent those individuals who are positive by recognized diagnostic meth-
ods, e.g., examination of excreta or by immunodiagnosis. The disease, however, is
represented by the morbidity, especially in the advanced stages. Thus an infection with
a fluke or a nematode need not necessarily be a cause of disease. It should be noted
that some parasitologists have used, for a parallel distinction, the terms "subclinical
disease" and "clinical disease".
Examples of the parasitic nematodes which are treated in Chapter 16, Volume H,
are the metastrongyles Muellerius capillaris, a parasite in the lungs of sheep; Aeluros-
trongylus abstrusus and Anafilaroides rostratus, both parasites of the lungs of cats,
and Angiostrongylus cantonensis, which is a parasite of the lungs of rats and can infect
humans, causing parasitic meningoencephalitis. Terrestrial snails of the genera Helix,
Hygrornia, Monacha and Cepaea, and slugs of the genera Limax, Dcroceras and Arlon
transmit Muellerius capillaris. Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and Anafilaroides rostratus
are transmitted by their terrestrial snail intermediate hosts, Bradybaena similaris and
Subulina octona. Angiostrongylus cantonensis causes human disease in a number of
islands in the Pacific, including Hawaii, Tahiti, the New Hebrides, the Loyalty Islands
and New Caledonia. Cases have also been reported in Taiwan, Thailand, the Philip-
pines, Sumatra and Vietnam. The parasite utilizes a number of aquatic and terrestrial
snails and slugs. Among the most important hosts are the terrestrial giant African
snail, Achatina fulica and the slugs Vaginulus plcbeius and Veronicella alit which are
all eaten by natives in the Pacific Islands, Malaysia, and Thailand, and cause the dis-
ease. Especially in Thailand, the large aquatic snails Pila spp., harboring the third
stage larva, are the source of the disease when consumed by humans. Other species of
Angiostrongylus which are dealt with are A. costaricensis and A. vasorum_
Digenetic trematodes are of world-wide distribution, and infect a variety of hosts,
which are members of all classes of vertebrates. Usually there are well-marked lines
of compatibility and incompatibility between some classes of vertebrate hosts and
whole families of trematodes. Their distribiltion, however, is dependent on the occur-
rence of certain specific molluscan hosts for the completion of their life cycle. In ad-
dition, certain human infections with trematodes are determined by the consumption
of particular plants, molluscs, crayfish, crabs, and fish. Thus food habits and pecul-
iarities of diet are important factors in the maintenance of some digenetic trematodes.
The trematodes which are considered in this book are parasites of humans, domestic
animals, subhuman primates and other wild mammals, poultry and other birds. They
include the schistosomes (blood flukes) of mammals and birds, the liver flukes, Fas-
eiola, Fascia'aides, Clonorehis, Opisthorchis, Dicrocoeliurn, and Platynosomum; the
intestinal flukes, Fasciolopsis, Heterophyes, Metagonimus, Nanophyetus, Echinos-
Loma, Phaneropsolus, Gastrodiscus, Gastrodiscoides, and Watsonius; the rumen
flukes Paramphistomum and Coty/ophoron; and the lung flukes Paragonimus species
and other flukes. In Chapter 1, the trematodes are treated together, as a group. Infor-
mation is provided as to their systematics, gross morphology, microstructure, ultra-
structure, biology and physiology of the adult worms as well as the successive stages
in their life cycle. In the same chapter, and in a simila way, the molluscan intermediate
hosts, in particular the gastropods, are treated as a group, and information is provided
about their systematics, gross morphology, ecology, histology, ultrastructure; their
physiology and the effect of larval trematodes on them.
Trematodes not only differ in their morphology and life cycles, but also in the syn-
drome which each causes, and in the epidemiology and control of infections. Accord-
ingly, in this book the infections or the diseases are treated separately in a number of
chapters. Every infection is called by a name derived from that of the trematode which
causes it. This is especially the case with the major etiologic agents of the tremato-
diases, which are considered in most of the chapters on the digenetic trematodes. Those
of lesser significance are treated in groups in Chapters 12 through 15.
THE AUTHOR
Emile A. Malek, Ph.D., has been on the Faculty of Tulane University since 1959.
He is Professor of Parasitology, and Director of the Laboratory of Schistosomiasis
and Medical Malacology, Department of Tropical Medicine, Tulane Medical Center,
New Orleans, Louisiana.
Dr. Malek graduated in 1943 from Cairo University, Egypt and obtained the M.S.
degree from the same university. In 1952 he received the Ph.D. degree from the Uni-
versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, after an additional two summers at the University of
Minnesota.
Dr. Malek became a member of the American Society of Parasitologists in 1949;
the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, and the Royal Society of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (London) in 1960. He has been a consultant to the
U.S. Agency for International Development, the State Department, and consultant on
several occasions to the Pan American Health Organization and the World Health
Organization. He was on the Faculty of the University of Khartoum, Sudan; a former
Visting Professor, the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, and the
Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza, Brazil, and former Staff member of the World
Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland.
He is the recipient of the U.S. Public Health Service, the National Institutes of
Health, Research Career Award since 1962, and a member of the Expert Advisory
Panel on Parasitic Diseases of the World Health Organization since 1964.
Dr. Malek has presented invited papers at international meetings, and scheduled
papers at several national meetings. He has published more than 50 research papers
and has contributed to scientific publications by the World Health Organization and
the Pan American Health Organization. He has also written chapters in four books,
and has a book, Malek and Cheng, Medical and Economic Malacology, Academic
Press, 1974.
His current major research interests include the epidemiology and control of schis-
tosomiasis, and other snail-transmitted parasitic diseases, especially fascioliasis and
paragonimiasis. His research interests and consultations have taken him to Michigan,
Minnesota, New Jersey, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Saint Lucia, Central America,
the Sudan, Egypt, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Senegal, Mali, and Iran.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME II
Chapter 1
Paragonimiasis (cid:9) 1
I.(cid:9) Introduction (cid:9) 1
11.(cid:9) Historical Background (cid:9) 1
III.(cid:9) Geographical Distribution (cid:9) 2
IV.(cid:9) Life Cycle of Paragonnnus (cid:9) 8
V.(cid:9) The Parasites (cid:9) 9
A. The Adult Worm (cid:9) 9
B. The Egg (cid:9) 11
C. The Miracidium (cid:9) 11
D. The Sporocyst (cid:9) 12
E. The First and Second Generation Rediae (cid:9) 16
F. The Cercaria (cid:9) 17
G. The Metacercaria (cid:9) 18
VI.(cid:9) The Snail Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 20
A. Species Involved (cid:9) 20
B. Ecology of the Snail Hosts (cid:9) 26
C. Snail- Paragonim us Relationships(cid:9) 26
1. Reaction and Penetration of the Miracidium (cid:9) 26
2. Infectivity of the Unhatched Miracidium (cid:9) 26
3. Prevalence of Infection in the Snail Hosts (cid:9) 27
VII. The Crustacean Second Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 27
VIII. Epidemiology (cid:9) 28
IX.(cid:9) Pathology (cid:9) 32
A.(cid:9) Extrapulmonary Paragonimiasis (cid:9) 33
X.(cid:9) Symptomatology and Clinical Manifestations (cid:9) 34
XI. Diagnosis (cid:9) 35
XI I. Treatment (cid:9) 36
XIII. Control (cid:9) 38
References (cid:9) 39
Chapter 2
Nanophyetiasis (cid:9) 47
I.(cid:9) Introduction (cid:9) 47
11.(cid:9) Historical Background (cid:9) 47
III.(cid:9) Life Cycle of Nanophyetus (cid:9) 48
IV.(cid:9) The Parasites (cid:9) 50
A. The Adult Worm (cid:9) 50
B. The Egg (cid:9) 51
C. The Miracidium (cid:9) 51
D. The Sporocyst (cid:9) 51
E. The Redia (cid:9) 51
F. The Cercaria (cid:9) 51
G. The Metacercaria (cid:9) 51
V.(cid:9) The Snail Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 51
VI.(cid:9) The Fish Second Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 54
VII. Pathology and Symptomatology (cid:9) 55
VIII_ "Salmon-Poisoning" Disease (cid:9) 57
IX. Control (cid:9) 58
X. Other Troglotrematids (cid:9) 59
References (cid:9) 62
Chapter 3
Clonorchiasis (cid:9) 67
1.(cid:9) Introduction (cid:9) 67
11.(cid:9) Historical Background (cid:9) 67
III.(cid:9) Geographical Distribution (cid:9) 68
IV.(cid:9) Life Cycle of Clonorchis (cid:9) 71
V.(cid:9) The Parasites (cid:9) 73
A. The Adult Worm (cid:9) 73
B. The Egg (cid:9) 74
C. The Sporocyst (cid:9) 75
D. The Redia (cid:9) 75
E. The Cercaria (cid:9) 75
F. The Metacercaria (cid:9) 75
VI.(cid:9) The Snail Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 77
A. Species Involved (cid:9) 77
B. Ecology of the Snail Hosts (cid:9) 77
C. Prevalence of Infection in the Snail (cid:9) 77
VII. The Fish Second Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 77
VIII. Epidemiology (cid:9) 79
IX.(cid:9) Pathology (cid:9) 81
X.(cid:9) Symptomatology and Clinical Manifestations (cid:9) 82
XI. Diagnosis (cid:9) 83
XII. Treatment (cid:9) 84
XIII. Control (cid:9) 84
References (cid:9) 85
Chapter 4
Opisthorchiasis (cid:9) 91
I. Introduction (cid:9) 91
II. Historical Background (cid:9) 91
III. Geographical Distribution (cid:9) 92
IV. The Parasites (cid:9) 94
V. The Snail Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 96
VI. The Fish Second Intermediate Hosts (cid:9) 97
VII. Epidemiology (cid:9) 98
VIII. Pathology (cid:9) 100
IX. Symptomatology and Clinical Manifestations (cid:9) 101
X. Treatment (cid:9) 101
Xl.(cid:9) Control (cid:9) 102
XII. Other Opisthorchids (cid:9) 102
A. Metorchis aibidus(Braun, 1893) Looss, 1899 (cid:9) 102
B. Opisthorchis tonkae Wallace and Penner, 1939 (cid:9) 103
C. Paropisthorchis indices Stephens, 1912 (cid:9) 103
D. Parametorchis complexus (Stiles and Hassall, 1894) Skrjabin, 1913 (cid:9) 103
References (cid:9) 103
Chapter 5
Heterophyidiasis (cid:9) 107
I.(cid:9) Introduction (cid:9) 107