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SmartGrids SmartGrids Edited by Nouredine Hadjsaïd Jean-Claude Sabonnadière Firstpublished2012inGreatBritainandtheUnitedStatesbyISTELtdandJohnWiley&Sons,Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,thispublicationmayonlybereproduced, storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withthepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentionedaddress: ISTELtd JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. 27-37StGeorge’sRoad 111RiverStreet LondonSW194EU Hoboken,NJ07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com ©ISTELtd2012 The rights of Nouredine Hadjsaïd and Jean-Claude Sabonnadière to be identified as theauthor of this workhavebeenassertedbythem inaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. ____________________________________________________________________________________ LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Smartgrids/editedbyNouredineHadjsaïd,Jean-ClaudeSabonnadière. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-84821-261-9 1. Smartpowergrids. I.Hadjsaïd,Nouredine.II.Sabonnadière,Jean-Claude. TK3105.S5452012 333.793'2--dc23 2012006916 BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData ACIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-1-84821-261-9 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd.,Croydon,SurreyCR04YY Table of Contents Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv RonnieBELMANS Chapter1.SmartGrids:Motivation,StakesandPerspectives . . . . . . . . 1 NouredineHADJSAÏDandJean-ClaudeSABONNADIÈRE 1.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1.Thenewenergyparadigm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2.Informationandcommunicationtechnologiesserving theelectricalsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3.Integrationofadvancedtechnologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.4.TheEuropeanenergyperspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.5.Shifttoelectricityasanenergycarrier(vector) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.6.MaintriggersofthedevelopmentofSmartGrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.7.DefinitionsofSmartGrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.8.ObjectivesaddressedbytheSmartGridconcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.8.1.Specificcaseoftransmissiongrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 1.8.2.Specificcaseofdistributiongrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.8.3.Thedesireddevelopmentofdistributionnetworks: towardssmartergrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.9.Socio-economicandenvironmentalobjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.10.Stakeholdersinvolvedtheimplementationofthe SmartGridconcept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.11.ResearchandscientificaspectsoftheSmartGrid. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.11.1.Examplesofthedevelopmentofinnovativeconcepts. . . . . . . . 23 1.11.2.Scientific,technological,commercialand sociologicalchallenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.12.Preparingthecompetencesneededforthedevelopment ofSmartGrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 vi SmartGrids 1.13.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1.14.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Chapter2.FromtheSmartGridtotheSmartCustomer: theParadigmShift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 CatherineFAILLIET 2.1.Keytrends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.1.1.Thecrisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.1.2.Environmentalawareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.1.3.Newtechnologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.2.Theevolutionoftheindividual’srelationshiptoenergy . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.1.Curiosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.2.Theneedfortransparency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2.3.Responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.3.Thehistoricalmodelofenergycompanies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.3.1.Incumbentsinanaturalmonopoly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.3.2.Aclearfocusontechnicalknowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.3.Undevelopedcustomerrelationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.4.SmartGridsfromthecustomer’spointofview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.4.1.Thefirststep:thedatarevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.4.2.Thesecondstep:theestablishmentofasmartecosystem . . . . . . 45 2.4.3.Theconsumers’reluctance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.5.Whataboutpossiblebusinessmodels?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.5.1.Anunprecedentedglobalbuzz…andthesearchfora businessmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.5.2.Governmentresearchintoavirtuousmodelofregulation. . . . . . 52 2.5.3.Anopeningfornewstakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.6.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Chapter3.TransmissionGrids:StakeholdersinSmartGrids . . . . . . . . 57 HervéMIGNON 3.1.Achangingenergycontext:thedevelopment ofrenewableenergies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.2.Achangingenergycontext:newmodesofconsumption. . . . . . . . . 62 3.3.Newchallenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.4.Anevolvingtransmissiongrid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.5.Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.6.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 TableofContents vii Chapter4.SmartGridsandEnergyManagementSystems . . . . . . . . . . 79 Jean-LouisCOULLON 4.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.2.Managingdistributedproductionresources:renewableenergies . . . . 80 4.2.1.Characterizationofdistributedrenewableproduction . . . . . . . . 81 4.2.2.Integratingrenewableenergiesintothemanagementprocess. . . . 83 4.3.Demandresponse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.4.Developmentofstorage,microgridsandelectricvehicles . . . . . . . . 90 4.4.1.Newstoragemethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.4.2.Microgrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.4.3.Electricvehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.5.Managinghighvoltagedirectcurrentconnections. . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.6.Gridreliabilityanalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.6.1.Model-basedstabilityanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.6.2.Continuousmeasurements-basedanalysis:phasor measurementunits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.6.3.Dynamiclimits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.6.4.Self-healinggrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.7.Smartassetmanagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.8.Smartgridrollout:regulatoryneeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.8.1.Theneedforpilotprojects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.8.2.Incentivesforinvestmentingridreliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.8.3.Renewables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.8.4.Investmentincentivesforenergyefficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 4.8.5.Cost/profitallocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.8.6.Newregulatoryframeworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.9.Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.9.1.Thecaseofsmartgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.9.2.Workinprogress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.9.3.Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.10.Systemarchitectureitems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.10.1.Broadenthevision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.10.2.Takingverticalchangesintoconsideration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.10.3.Developingintegrationtools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.11.Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.12.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Chapter5.TheDistributionSystemOperatorattheHeart oftheSmartGridRevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 PierreMALLET 5.1.Briefoverviewofsomeofthegeneralelementsof electricaldistributiongrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 viii SmartGrids 5.2.Thecurrentchanges:towardgreatercomplexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.3.Smartgridsenablethetransitiontocarbon-freeenergy. . . . . . . . . . 118 5.4.ThedifferentconstituentsofSmartGrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.5.SmartLife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.6.SmartOperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.7.SmartMetering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 5.7.1.TheLinkyproject. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 5.7.2.Newservicesforcustomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.7.3.Smartmeterscansignificantlymodernizegridmanagement . . . . 122 5.8.SmartServices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.9.Smartlocaloptimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5.9.1.Distributedgeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.9.2.Activemanagementofdemand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.9.3.Meansofdistributedstorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.9.4.Newusesincludingelectricvehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.9.5.Localoptimizationofthesystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.10.ThedistributorERDFisattheheartoffutureSmartGrids . . . . . . . 128 5.11.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Chapter6.Architecture,PlanningandReconfiguration ofDistributionGrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Marie-CécileALVAREZ,RaphaëlCAIREandBertrandRAISON 6.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 6.2.Thestructureofdistributiongrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.2.1.Highvoltage/mediumvoltagedeliverystations . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 6.2.2.Meshedandloopedgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.2.3.Typesofconductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.2.4.Underground/overhead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 6.2.5.MV/LVsubstations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.3.Planningofthedistributiongrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6.3.1.Principlesofplanning/engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.3.2.Allcriteriatobemetbytheproposedarchitectures. . . . . . . . . . 143 6.3.3.Exampleonasecuredfeedergrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.3.4.Long-termandshort-termplanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6.3.5.TheimpactofconnectingDGsontheMVgridstructure . . . . . . 155 6.3.6.IncreasingtheDGinsertionrateinthegrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.3.7.Proposalforanewloopedarchitecture:thehybridstructure . . . . 164 6.4.Reconfigurationforthereductionofpowerlosses. . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 6.4.1.Theproblemofcopperlosses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 6.4.2.Mathematicformulationoftheoptimizationproblem . . . . . . . . 169 6.4.3.Combinatorialoptimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 6.4.4.Differentapproachestofindingtheoptimalconfiguration. . . . . . 181 TableofContents ix 6.4.5.Reconfigurationofthepartiallymeshedgrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 6.5.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Chapter7.EnergyManagementandDecision-aidingTools. . . . . . . . . . 197 YvonBÉSANGER,BertrandRAISON,RaphaëlCAIREandTran-QuocTUAN 7.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 7.2.Voltagecontrol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 7.2.1.Introductiontovoltagecontrolindistributionnetworks . . . . . . . 198 7.2.2.Voltagecontrolincurrentdistributionnetworks . . . . . . . . . . . 199 7.2.3.Voltagecontrolindistributionnetworkswith dispersedgeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 7.2.4.Voltagecontrolconclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 7.3.Protectionschemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 7.3.1.MVprotectionscheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 7.3.2.Neutralgroundingmodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 7.3.3.Faultcharacteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 7.3.4.Poweroutages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 7.3.5.Impactofdecentralizedproductionontheoperationof protectionsofthefeeder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 7.4.Reconfigurationafterafault:resultsoftheINTEGRALproject . . . . 221 7.4.1.GoalsoftheINTEGRALproject. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 7.4.2.Demonstratordescription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 7.4.3.Generalself-healingprinciples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 7.4.4.Someresults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 7.5.Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 7.5.1.BasicconceptsoftheMonteCarlosimulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 7.5.2.Conclusiononreliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 7.6.Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Chapter8.IntegrationofVehicleswithRechargeableBatteriesinto DistributionNetworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 FlorentCADOUXandGeorgeGROSS 8.1.Therevolutionofindividualelectricaltransport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 8.1.1.Anincreasinglycredibletechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 8.1.2.Example:theFluenceZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 8.1.3.Whataretheconsequencesontheelectricalnetwork?. . . . . . . . 245 8.1.4.Demandmanagementandvehicle-to-grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 8.2Vehiclesas“activeloads”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 8.2.1.Energeticservices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 8.2.2.Frequencyregulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 8.2.3.Loadreserveandshedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 8.2.4.Otherservices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

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