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Small Signal Audio Design Douglas Self AMSTERDAM(cid:2)BOSTON(cid:2)HEIDELBERG(cid:2)LONDON(cid:2)NEWYORK(cid:2)OXFORD PARIS(cid:2)SANDIEGO(cid:2)SANFRANCISCO(cid:2)SINGAPORE(cid:2)SYDNEY(cid:2)TOKYO FocalPressisanimprintofElsevier FocalPressisanimprintofElsevier TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UK 30CorporateDrive,Suite400,Burlington,MA01803,USA Firstpublished2010 Copyrightª2010DouglasSelf.PublishedbyElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. TherightofDouglasSelftobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewiththe Copyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988 Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementwithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearance CenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenour understanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusingany information,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodsthey shouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessional responsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliability foranyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,or fromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Self,Douglas. Smallsignalaudiodesign. 1.Acousticalengineering.2.Signalprocessing. I.Title 620.2-dc22 LibraryofCongressNumber:2009939461 ISBN:978-0-240-52177-0 ForinformationonallFocalPresspublications visitourwebsiteatwww.focalpress.com PrintedandboundintheUnitedKingdom 07080910111110987654321 Contents Preface......................................................................................................................xiii About the Author.....................................................................................................xvii Acronyms................................................................................................................xviii Chapter 1 The Basics.......................................................................................................1 Signals.................................................................................................................................1 Amplifiers............................................................................................................................2 Voltage Amplifiers............................................................................................................2 Transconductance Amplifiers............................................................................................2 CurrentAmplifiers............................................................................................................3 Transimpedance Amplifiers...............................................................................................3 NegativeFeedback................................................................................................................4 Nominal Signal Levels..........................................................................................................5 Gain Structures.....................................................................................................................6 Amplification Then Attenuation........................................................................................6 AttenuationThen Amplification........................................................................................7 Raising the Input Signaltothe Nominal Level...................................................................7 ActiveGain Controls........................................................................................................8 Noise...................................................................................................................................8 Johnson Noise......................................................................................................................9 Shot Noise.........................................................................................................................11 1/fNoise (FlickerNoise).....................................................................................................12 Popcorn Noise....................................................................................................................13 Summing Noise Sources.....................................................................................................13 Noise inAmplifiers.............................................................................................................14 Noise inBipolar Transistors................................................................................................16 Bipolar Transistor Voltage Noise.....................................................................................16 Bipolar Transistor CurrentNoise.....................................................................................17 Noise inJFETs...................................................................................................................20 Noise inOp-Amps..............................................................................................................21 Low-Noise Op-AmpCircuitry.............................................................................................22 Noise Measurements...........................................................................................................23 HowtoAttenuate Quietly...................................................................................................23 iii iv Contents Howto Amplify Quietly.....................................................................................................25 Howto InvertQuietly.........................................................................................................26 Howto Balance Quietly......................................................................................................28 Ultra-Low-NoiseDesignwith Multipath Amplifiers.............................................................28 Ultra-Low-Noise Voltage Buffers....................................................................................29 Ultra-Low-Noise Amplifiers............................................................................................30 References.........................................................................................................................32 Chapter 2 Components...................................................................................................33 Conductors.........................................................................................................................33 Copper andOtherConductiveElements..........................................................................34 The MetallurgyofCopper..............................................................................................35 Gold and ItsUses...........................................................................................................35 Cable and Wiring Resistance..........................................................................................36 PCB Track Resistance....................................................................................................37 PCB Track-to-Track Crosstalk.............................................................................................39 Impedances andCrosstalk:ACase History..........................................................................40 Resistors............................................................................................................................42 Through-Hole Resistors..................................................................................................43 Surface-Mount Resistors.................................................................................................43 Resistor Imperfections....................................................................................................45 Resistor Noise................................................................................................................46 Resistor Non-Linearity...................................................................................................48 Capacitors..........................................................................................................................51 Capacitor Non-Linearity Examined.................................................................................52 Non-ElectrolyticCapacitor Non-Linearity.......................................................................53 Electrolytic CapacitorNon-Linearity...............................................................................58 Inductors............................................................................................................................61 References.........................................................................................................................61 Chapter 3 DiscreteTransistor Circuitry..............................................................................63 Why Use DiscreteTransistor Circuitry?...............................................................................63 Bipolars andFETs..............................................................................................................64 BipolarJunction Transistors................................................................................................64 The Transistor Equation......................................................................................................65 Beta...................................................................................................................................66 Unity-Gain Buffer Stages....................................................................................................66 The Simple Emitter-Follower..........................................................................................67 The Constant-Current Emitter-Follower...........................................................................70 The Push-Pull Emitter-Follower......................................................................................71 Emitter-FollowerStability...............................................................................................72 CFP Emitter-Followers...................................................................................................73 Improved Unity-Gain Buffers..........................................................................................75 Gain Stages........................................................................................................................81 Contents v One-Transistor Shunt-Feedback Gain Stages....................................................................81 One-Transistor Series-Feedback Gain Stages...................................................................82 Two-Transistor Shunt-Feedback Gain Stages...................................................................82 Two-Transistor Series-FeedbackGain Stages...................................................................87 DiscreteOp-Amp Design....................................................................................................88 High-Input-Impedance BipolarStages..................................................................................92 References.........................................................................................................................94 Chapter 4 Op-Ampsand Their Properties...........................................................................95 AVery Brief History ofOp-Amps.......................................................................................95 Op-Amp Properties: Noise..................................................................................................96 Op-Amp Properties: SlewRate............................................................................................97 Op-Amp Properties: Common-Mode Range.........................................................................98 Op-Amp Properties: Input Offset Voltage.............................................................................98 Op-Amp Properties: Bias Current........................................................................................99 Op-Amp Properties: Cost..................................................................................................100 Op-Amp Properties: Distortion..........................................................................................101 Op-Amp InternalDistortion..........................................................................................101 Slew-Rate-Limiting Distortion......................................................................................101 DistortionDue toLoading............................................................................................103 Thermal Distortion.......................................................................................................104 Common-Mode Distortion............................................................................................104 Bipolar input op-amps..................................................................................................104 FETop-amps...............................................................................................................108 Rail bootstrapping toreduceCM distortion...................................................................110 Simplerrail bootstrapping.............................................................................................113 Bootstrapping series-feedbackJFETop-amp stages........................................................114 Selecting the Right Op-Amp.............................................................................................115 Op-Amps Surveyed: BJTInput Types................................................................................117 The LM741 Op-Amp....................................................................................................118 The NE5532/5534 Op-Amp..........................................................................................118 Deconstructing the 5532...............................................................................................120 The LM4562 Op-Amp..................................................................................................121 The AD797 Op-Amp....................................................................................................124 The OP27 Op-Amp......................................................................................................124 The OP270 Op-Amp....................................................................................................125 The OP275 Op-Amp....................................................................................................126 Op-Amps Surveyed: JFET Input Types..............................................................................128 The TL072 Op-Amp.....................................................................................................128 The TL052 Op-Amp.....................................................................................................129 The OPA2134 Op-Amp................................................................................................131 The OPA604 Op-Amp..................................................................................................132 The OPA627 Op-Amp..................................................................................................135 References.......................................................................................................................136 vi Contents Chapter 5 Filters.........................................................................................................137 PassiveFilters...................................................................................................................137 ActiveFilters....................................................................................................................138 Low-PassFilters...............................................................................................................138 High-Pass Filters..............................................................................................................138 CombinedLow-PassandHigh-PassFilters........................................................................139 Bandpass Filters...............................................................................................................139 Notch Filters....................................................................................................................139 All-PassFilters.................................................................................................................139 Filter Characteristics.........................................................................................................140 Sallen-and-KeyFilters......................................................................................................140 Distortion inSallen-and-KeyFilters...................................................................................145 Multiple-Feedback Bandpass Filters..................................................................................147 Making Notch Filters........................................................................................................148 Differential Filters............................................................................................................150 References.......................................................................................................................151 Chapter 6 Preamplifier Architectures...............................................................................153 PassivePreamplifiers........................................................................................................153 ActivePreamplifiers..........................................................................................................155 Amplification and thegain-distributionproblem.................................................................156 ActiveGain Controls........................................................................................................158 RecordingFacilities..........................................................................................................158 ToneControls...................................................................................................................158 References.......................................................................................................................159 Chapter 7 Moving-Magnet Disc Inputs.............................................................................161 The VinylMedium...........................................................................................................161 SpuriousSignals...............................................................................................................162 MaximumSignalLevels on Vinyl.....................................................................................163 Equalization and ItsDiscontents........................................................................................166 The ‘NeumannPole’.........................................................................................................168 Implementing RIAA Equalization......................................................................................168 PassiveandSemi-PassiveRIAA Equalization....................................................................171 Calculating the RIAA Equalization Components................................................................175 RIAA Equalization Component Tolerances........................................................................175 Simulating InverseRIAA Equalization..............................................................................178 Physical InverseRIAA Equalization..................................................................................179 Overload Margins.............................................................................................................179 CartridgeImpedances.......................................................................................................181 CartridgeLoading.............................................................................................................181 Cartridge–Preamplifier Interaction.....................................................................................183 CartridgeDC and ACCoupling.........................................................................................183 Contents vii DiscreteMM Disc Input Stages.........................................................................................183 Op-Amp MM Disc Input Stages........................................................................................187 Noise inRIAA Preamplifiers.............................................................................................191 Noise Results with A-Weighting........................................................................................196 RIAA Noise Measurements...............................................................................................196 Electronic CartridgeLoading for Lower Noise...................................................................197 SubsonicFilters................................................................................................................201 Combining Subsonicand Ultrasonic Filters........................................................................204 References.......................................................................................................................204 Chapter 8 Moving-Coil Head Amplifiers...........................................................................207 Moving-Coil Cartridge Characteristics...............................................................................207 Amplification Strategies....................................................................................................208 Moving-Coil Transformers................................................................................................209 Moving-Coil Input Amplifiers...........................................................................................210 ANewMoving-Coil Amplifier Configuration....................................................................213 The CompleteCircuit.......................................................................................................216 Performance.....................................................................................................................216 References.......................................................................................................................218 Chapter 9 VolumeandBalanceControls...........................................................................219 Volume Controls...............................................................................................................219 Volume ControlLaws.......................................................................................................220 Loaded Linear Pots...........................................................................................................221 Dual-Action VolumeControls...........................................................................................223 Tapped VolumeControls...................................................................................................226 Slide Faders.....................................................................................................................229 ActiveVolume Controls....................................................................................................231 The Baxandall ActiveVolume Control...............................................................................235 APractical Baxandall ActiveGain Stage...........................................................................237 PotentiometersandDC.....................................................................................................238 Motorized Potentiometers.................................................................................................239 SteppedVolume Controls..................................................................................................240 SwitchedAttenuator Volume Controls...............................................................................241 Relay-Switched Volume Controls......................................................................................249 Transformer-Tap Volume Controls.....................................................................................250 IntegratedCircuit Volume Controls....................................................................................250 BalanceControls:Passive.................................................................................................250 ActiveBalance Controls....................................................................................................252 Mono/Stereo Switches......................................................................................................254 Width Controls.................................................................................................................254 References.......................................................................................................................255 viii Contents Chapter 10 Tone Controls andEqualizers.........................................................................257 PassiveTone Controls.......................................................................................................258 Baxandall Tone Controls...................................................................................................259 The Baxandall Two-Capacitor LF Control.....................................................................260 The Baxandall Two-Capacitor Tone Control..................................................................263 The Baxandall Two-Capacitor HFControl.....................................................................265 Switched-FrequencyBaxandall Controls........................................................................266 Variable-FrequencyLFand HFEQs..................................................................................267 Tone-BalanceControls......................................................................................................269 Middle Controls................................................................................................................271 Fixed-FrequencyBaxandall Middle Controls.................................................................271 Three-Band Baxandall EQ inOne Stage........................................................................273 Wien Fixed Middle EQ.................................................................................................276 Sweep Middles.............................................................................................................276 The Single-Gang Sweep Middle....................................................................................278 Switched-Q Variable-FrequencyWien Middle EQs............................................................280 Switchable Peak/Shelving LF/HF EQs...............................................................................281 Parametric Middle EQs.....................................................................................................283 GraphicEqualizers...........................................................................................................286 References.......................................................................................................................289 Chapter 11 AComplete Preamplifier...............................................................................291 Architecture and Philosophy..............................................................................................291 The Line Inputs................................................................................................................293 The High-ImpedanceInput Buffer.....................................................................................293 The Tone-ControlStage....................................................................................................294 The ActiveGain Stage......................................................................................................300 Performance.....................................................................................................................301 References.......................................................................................................................302 Chapter 12 Mixer Architectures.....................................................................................303 Performance Factors.........................................................................................................303 MixerInternalLevels........................................................................................................304 MixerArchitecture...........................................................................................................305 The SplitMixingArchitecture...........................................................................................306 The In-Line Mixing Architecture.......................................................................................308 ACloserLook at Split-Format Modules............................................................................310 The Channel Module(Split Format)..............................................................................310 Effects Return Modules................................................................................................313 The Group Module.......................................................................................................314 The Master Module......................................................................................................316 Talkback and Oscillator Systems...................................................................................317 The In-Line Channel Module............................................................................................319 Contents ix Chapter 13 Microphone Preamplifiers..............................................................................323 Microphone PreamplifierRequirements.............................................................................323 TransformerMicrophoneInputs........................................................................................324 The Simple HybridMicrophone Preampilifier....................................................................325 The Balanced-FeedbackHybridMicrophone Preampilifier..................................................326 Microphone andLine-Input Pads.......................................................................................329 The Padless Microphone Preampilifier...............................................................................331 CapacitorMicrophoneHeadAmplifiers.............................................................................335 Chapter 14 Line Inputs.................................................................................................339 External SignalLevels......................................................................................................339 InternalSignalLevels.......................................................................................................339 Input Amplifier Functions.................................................................................................340 Unbalanced Inputs............................................................................................................340 Balanced Interconnections.................................................................................................344 The Advantages of Balanced Interconnections...............................................................345 The Disadvantages ofBalanced Interconnections...........................................................345 Balanced Cablesand Interference......................................................................................346 Electrostatic Coupling..................................................................................................346 MagneticCoupling.......................................................................................................347 Ground Voltages...........................................................................................................348 Balanced Connectors........................................................................................................348 Balanced SignalLevels.....................................................................................................348 Electronic vs.Transformer Balanced Inputs.......................................................................349 Common-Mode Rejection.................................................................................................349 The Basic Electronic Balanced Input.................................................................................352 Common-Mode Rejection: The Basic Balanced Input and Op-Amp Effects.........................354 Op-Amp FrequencyResponseEffects................................................................................355 Op-Amp CMRREffects....................................................................................................357 Amplifier Component Mismatch Effects............................................................................357 APractical Balanced Input................................................................................................359 Variations on the Balanced Input Stage..............................................................................362 Combined Unbalanced and Balanced Inputs..................................................................362 The Superbal Input.......................................................................................................363 Switched-Gain Balanced Inputs.....................................................................................364 Variable-Gain Balanced Inputs......................................................................................365 High-Input-ImpedanceBalanced Inputs.........................................................................366 The InvertingTwo-Op-Amp Input.................................................................................367 The Instrumentation Amplifier......................................................................................368 TransformerBalanced Inputs.............................................................................................370 Input Overvoltage Protection.............................................................................................371 Low-Noise Balanced Inputs..............................................................................................372 Low-Noise Balanced Inputsin Real Life............................................................................377

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Small Signal Audio Design is a unique guide to the design of high-quality circuitry for preamplifiers, mixing consoles, and a host of other signal-processing devices. Learn to use inexpensive and readily available parts to obtain state-of-the-art performance in all the vital parameters of noise, dis
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Small Signal Audio Design is a unique guide to the design of high-quality circuitry for preamplifiers, mixing consoles, and a host of other signal-processing devices. Learn to use inexpensive and readily available parts to obtain state-of-the-art performance in all the vital parameters of noise, dis

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