Table Of ContentS E C O N D E D I T I O N
SLIP, TRIP,
and FALL
PREVENTION
A Practical Handbook
Reader Comments on
the First Edition*
“This book presents a scientific description of slip resistance measurement, methods
for ensuring accurate and repeatable quantification of slip resistance, and recommen-
dations for maintaining slip-resistant workplaces. I highly recommend this text for
anyone serious about controlling slip/fall hazards. The illustrations and photos are
excellent, and the text is clear and direct. If your work requires the investigation, cor-
rection, or litigation of slip/fall accidents, this book belongs on your reference shelf.”
Richard Sesek
University of Utah, SLC, UT
“Experienced safety professionals will quickly see the value in this book. But it is the
corporate risk manager, HR generalist, or in-house facilities engineer charged with
finding effective solutions who stands to gain the most. Steve Di Pilla ranks among
the most respected voices in the world of slip and fall prevention. He goes out of his
way to offer useful, unbiased information. This handbook offers practical real-world
recommendations.”
Steven Anderson
Zurich Risk Services
“This book is a comprehensive reference on slips and falls and “must have” for every
safety professional reference library. Very useful hazard recognition and prevention
guidelines are offered for indoor and outdoor slips and falls from floors, stairs, and
ramps. In addition, this is one of the best references I’ve seen on slip-resistance mea-
surement guidelines and tribology standards.”
Wayne S. Maynard
Liberty Mutual Research Center
“Mr. DiPilla’s book is delightfully clear, concise and comprehensive. It educates the
reader from the scope of slips and falls issues, to common procedures for recognizing
and mitigating walkway hazards, to management control methods and accident inves-
tigation/claims mitigation. The text and illustrations read in a simple, common-sense
way, showing the truth of Voltaire’s comment that ‘common sense isn’t so common.’
Another noteworthy feature of this book is the remarkably comprehensive, anno-
tated references to slip resistance principles, flooring, footwear, and slip-resistance
measurement techniques, both within the United States and internationally. The anno-
tated listings of U.S. and international standards and guidelines in themselves provide
the best collection of references I’ve seen on this complex subject. Remarkable.”
David C. Underwood, Ph.D.
* Courtesy of Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. All rights reserved.
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
SLIP, TRIP,
and FALL
PREVENTION
A Practical Handbook
Steven Di Pilla
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Di Pilla, Steven.
Slip, trip, and fall prevention : a practical handbook / Steven Di Pilla. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Previous ed. published under title: Slip and fall prevention, 2003.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-8234-0 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Falls (Accidents)--Prevention. I. Di Pilla, Steven. Slip and fall prevention. II. Title.
T55.D565 2009
620.8’6--dc22 2009018494
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword .................................................................................................................xix
Preface.....................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................xxiii
Author ....................................................................................................................xxv
Introduction ..........................................................................................................xxvii
Chapter 1 Physical Evaluation ..............................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................1
1.2 Expectation ................................................................................1
1.2.1 Missteps ........................................................................1
1.3 Distractions ................................................................................2
1.4 Level Walkway Surfaces ...........................................................2
1.4.1 Sidewalks ......................................................................3
1.4.1.1 Rubberized Sidewalks ..................................5
1.4.2 Curbing .........................................................................6
1.4.2.1 Curb Construction and Design .....................6
1.4.2.2 Curb Marking ...............................................8
1.4.3 Curb Cutouts ................................................................8
1.4.4 Other Walkway Impediments ....................................10
1.4.4.1 Access Covers .............................................10
1.4.4.2 Drainage Grates ..........................................10
1.4.4.3 Posts ............................................................12
1.4.4.4 Bicycle Racks ..............................................12
1.4.4.5 Planters, Trash Receptacles, and
Similar Furnishings ....................................12
1.4.4.6 Architectural Designs .................................12
1.4.4.7 Doorstops and Other Small Trip
Hazards .......................................................13
1.4.4.8 Temporary Fixes .........................................13
1.5 Level Walkway Surfaces and Water ........................................16
1.6 Parking Areas ..........................................................................19
1.6.1 Tire Stops ...................................................................19
1.6.2 Speed Bumps ..............................................................22
1.7 Changes in Levels ....................................................................24
1.7.1 Air Steps .........................................................................24
1.7.2 Design .............................................................................25
1.8 Stairs ........................................................................................26
1.8.1 Stair Missteps—Overstep and Heel Scuffs ................26
1.8.2 Stair Statistics .............................................................27
v
vi Contents
1.8.3 Stair Design ................................................................29
1.8.3.1 Stair Nosings ...............................................30
1.8.3.2 Stair Visibility .............................................31
1.8.3.3 Stair Landings .............................................32
1.9 Handrails .................................................................................33
1.9.1 Graspability ................................................................35
1.9.2 Supports ......................................................................36
1.10 Guards (or Guardrails) .............................................................39
1.11 Ramps ......................................................................................40
1.11.1 Ramp Design ..............................................................40
1.11.2 Ramp Landings ..........................................................43
1.12 Floor Mats/Entrances and Exits ..............................................43
1.12.1 General Precautions ...................................................44
1.12.2 Minimizing Contaminants .........................................45
1.12.3 Mat Design .................................................................46
1.12.4 Mat Design and Arrangement ....................................46
1.12.5 Mat Storage ................................................................47
1.12.6 Mat Size ......................................................................48
1.12.7 Protection of Hard Flooring Surfaces ........................51
1.12.8 Mat Cleaning Guidelines ...........................................51
1.13 Bathrooms ...............................................................................52
1.14 Elevators ..................................................................................52
1.15 Escalators .................................................................................54
1.16 Carpet ......................................................................................56
1.17 Accessibility ............................................................................57
1.18 Signage ....................................................................................57
1.19 Reference Standards ................................................................59
1.19.1 NFPA International (Formerly National Fire
Protection Association) ..............................................59
1.19.1.1 NFPA 101 Life Safety Code (2006)............59
1.19.2 ASTM International (Formerly American
Society of Testing and Materials) ...............................59
1.19.2.1 ASTM F1637 Practice for Safe
Walking Surfaces ........................................59
1.19.3 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) .........59
1.19.3.1 ANSI A1264.1.............................................59
1.19.3.2 ANSI A1264.2 ............................................60
1.19.3.3 ICC/ANSI A117.1 ........................................60
1.19.4 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) .......................................................................60
1.19.4.1 1910, Subpart D—Workplace Walking
and Working Surfaces.................................60
1.19.5 Model Building Codes ...............................................60
1.19.6 ASME International (Formerly American
Society of Mechanical Engineers) ..............................61
Contents vii
Chapter 2 Management Controls ........................................................................67
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................67
2.2 Engineering Precept ................................................................68
2.2.1 No “Silver Bullet” ......................................................68
2.3 Integrate Controls ....................................................................68
2.3.1 Program Component Design ......................................69
2.3.2 Hierarchy of Controls .................................................69
2.3.2.1 Elimination .................................................69
2.3.2.2 Engineering Controls ..................................69
2.3.2.3 Administrative Controls .............................70
2.3.2.4 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ........70
2.4 Behavioral Safety and Pedestrian Traffic Flow .......................70
2.4.1 Natural Paths/Observation .........................................70
2.4.2 Adapt or Adopt ...........................................................70
2.5 Building Inspection and Maintenance Programs ....................71
2.6 Slip/Fall Hazard Self-Inspection Programs.............................72
2.7 Spill and Wet Program ............................................................74
2.7.1 Electronic Inspection System .....................................75
2.8 Recommended Practices for Snow Removal ...........................78
2.8.1 Objectives ...................................................................78
2.8.2 Personnel and Responsibilities ...................................79
2.8.2.1 Facility Manager .........................................79
2.8.2.2 Custodians ..................................................79
2.8.2.3 Grounds Maintenance Staff ........................79
2.8.2.4 Contracted Snow Removal .........................79
2.8.3 Priorities for Removal ................................................79
2.8.4 Guidelines for Removal ..............................................80
2.8.5 Snow Storage ..............................................................81
2.8.6 Application of Anti-Icing, Deicing, and Sand ............81
2.8.6.1 Temperature and Ice Melting ......................82
2.8.6.2 Before the Storm .........................................83
2.8.6.3 During the Storm ........................................84
2.8.6.4 After the Storm ...........................................86
2.9 Lighting ...................................................................................87
2.9.1 Light Sources ..............................................................87
2.9.1.1 Mercury Vapor ............................................87
2.9.1.2 Metal Halide ...............................................88
2.9.1.3 High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) .....................88
2.9.2 Lighting Levels—Safety Only ...................................88
2.9.3 Lighting Levels—Categories .....................................89
2.9.4 Lighting Transitions ...................................................89
2.9.5 Maintenance ...............................................................90
2.10 Contractual Risk Transfer .......................................................91
2.10.1 General Administrative Measures..............................92
viii Contents
2.10.2 Specific Control Measures .........................................92
2.10.3 Fundamental Guidelines ............................................93
2.11 Construction, Renovation, and Special Event Planning ..........93
2.12 Loss Analysis ...........................................................................94
2.12.1 Tracking Exposure .....................................................94
2.12.2 Gathering the Data .....................................................94
2.12.3 Developing Solutions ..................................................95
Chapter 3 Principles of Slip Resistance ............................................................105
3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................105
3.2 Principles of Friction .............................................................105
3.3 Slip Resistance Defined .........................................................106
3.4 Slip Resistance Factors ..........................................................107
3.5 The Mechanics of Walking ...................................................107
3.6 Causation between Incident and Injury .................................108
3.7 Slip Resistance Scale .............................................................109
3.8 Surface Roughness ................................................................110
3.8.1 Height or Sharpness .................................................111
3.8.2 Liquid Dispersion .....................................................111
3.8.3 Measuring Roughness ..............................................111
3.8.4 Roughness Thresholds..............................................112
3.8.4.1 HSE Roughness Thresholds .....................112
3.8.5 Roughness Measurement Standards .........................114
3.9 Wet Surfaces ..........................................................................115
3.9.1 Hydroplaning ............................................................115
3.9.2 Sticktion....................................................................115
3.10 Human Perception of Slipperiness ........................................116
3.11 Classes of Tribometers ..........................................................117
3.11.1 Horizontal Pull (Dragsled) .......................................117
3.11.2 Pendulum ..................................................................117
3.11.3 Articulated Strut .......................................................118
3.12 Hunter Machine .....................................................................118
Chapter 4 U.S. Tribometers ...............................................................................121
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................121
4.2 James Machine ......................................................................121
4.2.1 Operation ..................................................................121
4.2.2 Subsequent Versions .................................................122
4.2.3 Operational Issues ....................................................123
4.2.4 Standards ..................................................................125
4.2.4.1 Committee D21 Polishes ..........................125
4.3 Horizontal Pull Slipmeter (HPS) ...........................................126
Contents ix
4.4 Horizontal Dynamometer Pull-Meter (C21 Ceramic
Whitewares and Related Products) ........................................128
4.4.1 Issues ........................................................................128
4.4.1.1 Scope .........................................................129
4.4.1.2 Significance and Use.................................129
4.4.1.3 Apparatus Issues .......................................130
4.5 Brungraber Mark I Portable Articulated Strut Slip Tester
(PAST) ...................................................................................131
4.5.1 Operation ..................................................................132
4.5.2 Availability and Standards .......................................132
4.5.3 F15 Consumer Products ...........................................133
4.5.3.1 F462 ..........................................................133
4.6 Brungraber Mark II Portable Inclinable Articulated Strut
Slip Tester (PIAST) ...............................................................134
4.7 English XL Variable Incidence Tribometer (VIT) ................137
4.7.1 D01 Paint and Related Coatings, Materials, and
Applications ..............................................................141
4.7.1.2 D5859 ........................................................141
4.7.2 WK11411 ..................................................................141
4.8 Test Pad Material ...................................................................141
4.8.1 Leather ......................................................................141
4.8.2 Neolite® Test Liner ...................................................142
4.8.3 Rubbers and Other Footwear Materials ...................143
4.8.3.1 Neoprene ...................................................143
4.8.3.2 Four S ........................................................143
4.8.3.3 TRRL or TRL Rubber ..............................144
4.8.4 Actual Footwear Bottoms ........................................144
4.9 Uses for Tribometers .............................................................144
4.9.1 Problem Identification—Prevention .........................144
4.9.2 Little or No Prior History .........................................144
4.9.3 Claims Defense/Documentation ..............................145
4.9.4 Accident Investigation ..............................................145
4.10 Operator Qualifications of Competency ................................145
4.11 Equipment Calibration and Maintenance ..............................145
4.12 Progress on the ASTM “Gold” Standard ..............................146
4.12.1 Validation and Calibration of Walkway
Tribometers ..............................................................146
4.12.2 Field Testing with Walkway Tribometers ................147
4.12.3 Thresholds ................................................................147
4.12.4 Benefits .....................................................................148
4.13 Groundbreaking Research .....................................................148
Chapter 5 U.S. Standards and Guidelines .........................................................161
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................161
