Six sigma for the next millennium : a CSSBB guidebook

408 Pages·2005·14.08 MB·English

by  Kim H. Pries

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S S
IX IGMA FOR THE
N M
EXT ILLENNIUM
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Also available from ASQ Quality Press:
The Certified Six Sigma Black Belt Handbook
Donald W. Benbow and T.M. Kubiak
Applied Data Analysis for Process Improvement: APractical Guide to Six Sigma Black Belt
Statistics
James L. Lamprecht
Business Performance through Lean Six Sigma: Linking the Knowledge Worker, the Twelve
Pillars, and Baldrige
James T. Schutta
Design for Six Sigma as Strategic Experimentation: Planning, Designing, and Building
World-Class Products and Services
H.E. Cook
Applied Statistics for the Six Sigma Green Belt
Bhisham C. Gupta and H. Fred Walker
The Six Sigma Path to Leadership: Observations from the Trenches
David H. Treichler
Lean-Six Sigma for Healthcare: ASenior Leader Guide to Improving Cost and Throughput
Chip Caldwell, Jim Brexler, and Tom Gillem
The Manager’s Guide to Six Sigma in Healthcare: Practical Tips and Tools for Improvement
Robert Barry and Amy C. Smith
Stop Rising Healthcare Costs Using Toyota Lean Production Methods: 38Steps for
Improvement
Robert Chalice
Six Sigma Project Management: APocket Guide
Jeffrey N. Lowenthal
Six Sigma for the Shop Floor: APocket Guide
Roderick A. Munro
Six Sigma for the Office: APocket Guide
Roderick A. Munro
To request a complimentary catalog of ASQ Quality Press publications,
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H1245 Pries 00_FM.qxd 8/20/05 5:09 PM Page iii
S S
IX IGMA FOR THE
N M
EXT ILLENNIUM
A CSSBB G
UIDEBOOK
KIM H. PRIES
ASQ Quality Press
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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American Society for Quality, Quality Press, Milwaukee 53203
© 2006 by American Society for Quality
All rights reserved. Published 2005
Printed in the United States of America
12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pries, Kim H., 1955–
Six sigma for the next millennium : a CSSBB guidebook / Kim H. Pries.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-87389-656-6 (alk. paper)
1. Six sigma (Quality control standard) 2. Total quality management.
3. Quality control. I. Title.
HD62.15.P75 2005
658.4′013—dc22
2005018863
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photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
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H1245 Pries 00_FM.qxd 8/20/05 5:09 PM Page v
Contents
List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Section I. Enterprise-Wide Deployment (9 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Enterprise View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
C. Organizational Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
D. History of Organizational Improvement/Foundations of Six Sigma . . . . . . . . . . 25
Section II. Business Process Management (9 Questions) . . . . . . . . . 41
A. Process vs. Functional View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
B. Voice of the Customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
C. Business Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Section III. Project Management (15 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
A. Project Charter and Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
B. Team Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
C. Team Dynamics and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
D. Change Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
E. Management and Planning Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Section IV. Six Sigma Improvement Methodology and Tools—
Define (9 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
A. Project Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
B. Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
C. Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Section V. Six Sigma Improvement Methodology and Tools—
Measure (30 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
A. Process Analysis and Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
B. Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
C. Collecting and Summarizing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
D. Properties and Applications of Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
E. Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
F. Analyzing Process Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
v
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vi Contents
Section VI. Six Sigma Improvement Methodology and Tools—
Analyze (23 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
A. Exploratory Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
B. Hypothesis Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Section VII. Six Sigma Improvement Methodology and Tools—
Improve (22 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
A. Design of Experiments (DOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
B. Response Surface Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
C. Evolutionary Operations (EVOP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Section VIII. Six Sigma Improvement Methodology and Tools—
Control (15 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
A. Statistical Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
B. Advanced Statistical Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
C. Lean Tools for Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
D. Measurement System Re-analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Section IX. Lean Enterprise (9 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
A. Lean Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Section X. Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) (9 Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
B. Robust Design and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
C. Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
D. Design for X (DFX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
E. Special Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
What You Should Have Learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Where You Should Go Next . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Being a Six Sigma Black Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Comments on MINITAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Appendixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Appendix A: Table of Control Chart Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Appendix B: Chi-Squared Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Appendix C: F-Test Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Appendix D: Standard Normal Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Appendix E: T-Test Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Appendix F: Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Appendix G: Cumulative Poisson Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
List of Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
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List of Figures and Tables
Figure I.1 Simple organization chart for an enterprise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure I.2 Avery high-level view of a business process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure I.3 The sequence of steps in a SIPOC diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure I.4 Asimple control system representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure I.5 Aturtle diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure I.6 Abelt hierarchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table I.1 Six Sigma roles and responsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure I.7 Quick solution options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure I.8 Aformat for a SWOT diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Figure II.1 Process flow using ANSI symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure II.2 Some stakeholder relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table II.1 Relation of PMI processes with problem-solving techniques. . . . 47
Figure II.3 Black Belt project WBS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table II.2 Short portion of a customer satisfaction survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Figure II.4 Aradar graph showing qualitative information on
ordinal scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Figure II.5 Focus area triangle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Figure II.6 Asimple critical-to-quality tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure II.7 Away to calculate return on investment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure II.8 Quality Loss Function plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table III.1 Using a spreadsheet to represent a project Gantt chart. . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure III.1 Team resource matrix used to clarify roles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Figure III.2 The ’Orming model of teams with the addition of team
retirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table III.2 Requisites for team success. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table III.3 Dealing with groupthink. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Figure III.3 Force field analysis for buying a new house. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Figure III.4 Some organizational constructs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure III.5 Johari window example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Figure III.6 Herzberg and hygienic and non-hygienic factors in
motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
vii
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viii List of Figures and Tables
Figure III.7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure III.8 Avery simple model of communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure III.9 An affinity diagram collected and put together for
laboratory improvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Figure III.10 Interrelationship digraph depicting the relationship of
problems in an electromagnetic compatibility laboratory. . . . . . . 108
Figure III.11 Tree diagram showing different kinds of laboratory tests. . . . . . . 109
Figure III.12 Prioritization matrix layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Table III.4 The “L” diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table III.5 The “T” diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table III.6 The “X” diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure III.13 PDPC for a problem with a house. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure III.14 Anetwork diagram for some tests using Microsoft Project
and Chart produced by PERT Chart Expert from
Critical Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Figure IV.1 Example of Pareto chart showing count and percentage. . . . . . . . 120
Figure IV.2 Macro map with non-value-added activities removed. . . . . . . . . . 121
Table IV.1 Standard format for a simple balance sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Figure IV.3 Why-why diagram to look for a root cause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Figure IV.4 Baseline capability study for approval of engineering
change requests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Table IV.2 Atool to aid in the development of meaningful mission
and vision statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Figure V.1 Flowchart of an instrumentation manufacturing process
with control points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Figure V.2 Detailed SIPOC diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure V.3 IPO diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Figure V.4 Venn diagrams representing probability logic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure V.5 Graphs of discrete data versus continuous data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Table V.1 Some features of the various data types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Table V.2 Asimple check sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Table V.3 Example of coded control chart data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Figure V.6 Choosing a distribution based on the data fit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Figure V.7 Four types of data plots (histogram, scatterplot,
box-and-whisker, and run plot). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Figure V.8 Weibull plot versus a lognormal plot for the same data. . . . . . . . . 161
Figure V.9 Binomial and Poisson distributions with different
probabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure V.10 Two symmetrical distributions (normal and t) and one
asymmetrical (chi-squared). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure V.11 The asymmetrical F-distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure V.12 Asymmetrical continuous distributions: lognormal,
exponential, and Weibull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure V.13 Dial caliper and micrometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Figure V.14 Mitutoyo Optical Comparator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Figure V.15 Atarget metaphor for accuracy and precision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure V.16 Instron pull tester used for destructive testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Figure V.17 Unholtz-Dickie vibration table for destructive testing. . . . . . . . . . 177
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LISTOFFIGURESANDTABLES ix
Figure V.18 Sources of variation in a measurement system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Figure V.19 Capability study of a scheduling analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure V.20 Capability study of a capacitor at –40˚C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Figure V.21 Capacitor study. Product is potentially capable, but not
very close to center. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Figure V.22 Alog-normal capability study using MINITAB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Table V.4 The interrelationships among Cp, Cpk, Sigma limits,
and PPM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure V.23 Attribute capability study of sales failures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Figure VI.1 Multi-vari chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Figure VI.2 Linear regression with confidence interval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Figure VI.3 Residual analysis of linear fit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table VI.1 Goodness-of-fit example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Table VI.2 MINITAB example of a one-way ANOVAfor carpet types. . . . . . 213
Table VI.3 Data table for a two-way ANOVAfrom MINITAB example. . . . . 214
Table VI.4 2×2 contingency table example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Table VI.5 2×3 contingency table example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Table VI.6 List of non-parametric tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Table VII.1 Full factorial, 2-level, 3-factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Table VII.2 Fractional factorial (one example), 2-level, 3-factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Table VII.3 Full factorial, 2-level, 3-factor with interactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Table VII.4 Resolution levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Table VII.5 Plackett-Burman design for seven factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table VII.6 Taguchi design for seven factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table VII.7 Afractional design for seven factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Table VII.8 Observe the simple layout and regularity of the Latin square. . . . 229
Figure VII.1 Experimental effects plots from a fractional factorial
example in MINITAB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Table VII.9 MINITAB data for Figure VII.1 and Tables VII.10–VII.13. . . . . . . . 232
Table VII.10 Fractional factorial fit: Yield versus time, temp, catalyst estimated
effects and coefficients for yield (coded units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Table VII.11 Analysis of variance for yield (coded units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Table VII.12 Estimated effects and coefficients for cost (coded units). . . . . . . . . 233
Table VII.13 Analysis of variance for cost (coded units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure VII.2 P-diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Figure VII.3 Contour plots for a response surface from a
MINITAB example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure VII.4 Surface plot for a response surface from a
MINITAB example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure VII.5 Design plot for a mixture-style designed experiment
using a MINITAB example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure VII.6 EVOPs geometry for a 2×2 experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Figure VII.7 EVOPs geometry for a central composite design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Figure VIII.1 Three sets of control charts for the same basic data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Table VIII.1 Differences between variable- and attribute-based
control charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Figure VIII.2 Choosing a control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Figure VIII.3 Testing for special causes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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Figure VIII.4 An illustration of pre-control limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Figure VIII.5 An example of EWMAcontrol chart using a file called
“Data.” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Figure VIII.6 Air Academy CuSum with traditional V-mask using
SPC XL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Figure VIII.7 MINITAB CuSum with control limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Figure VIII.8 Moving average control chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Figure VIII.9 Photograph used to show employees the proper location
of tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Figure VIII.10 Comparison of kaizen’s gradual method versus that of
fading innovation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Figure VIII.11 Form DD1723 can be used as a compact way to measure
process and time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Figure VIII.12 Nested Gage R&R example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Figure VIII.13 Gage R&R using attributes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Figure VIII.14 The nested design used for Gage R&R work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Figure IX.1 An “as-is” value stream map using the ANSI flow chart
notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Figure IX.2 Value stream map in Figure IX.1 with the unnecessary
activities removed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Figure X.1 Atemplate for a House of Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure X.2 Workflow for calculating tolerances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Table X.1 FMEAoccurrence values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Table X.2 FMEAseverity criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Table X.3 The header information for an FMEAtable showing the
position of the RPN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Figure X.3 The basic DFMEAflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Figure X.4 The basic PFMEAsequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Table X.4 The TRIZ 40 principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Figure X.5 The domains used in axiomatic design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336