Table Of ContentSix Degrees of Social Infl uence
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Six Degrees of
Social Influence
Science, Application, and the
Psychology of Robert Cialdini
EDITED BY
Douglas T. Kenrick
Noah J. Goldstein
Sanford L. Braver
1
1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Six degrees of social infl uence : science, application, and the psychology of Robert Cialdini /
edited by Douglas T. Kenrick, Noah J. Goldstein, and Sanford L. Braver.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-974305-6 (hardcover)
1. Cialdini, Robert B. 2. Persuasion (Psychology) 3. Infl uence (Psychology) 4. Social infl uence.
I. Kenrick, Douglas T. II. Goldstein, Noah J. III. Braver, Sanford L.
BF637.P4S59 2011
153.8’52092—dc22 2011009682
____________________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
FOREWORD
Th e capacity to persuade— t o capture the audience, convince the unde-
cided, convert the opposition —h as always been a prized skill. But, thanks
to relatively recent developments, it is no longer only an elusive a rt , the
province of those with an intuitive grasp of how to time an argument or
turn a phrase just so. For most of us, this is welcome news. Aft er all, one
problem with an art form is that only artists can truly manage it. But, what
about the rest of us? Must we resign ourselves to fumbling away open
opportunities to move others in our direction because we so frequently fail
to say the right thing or, worse, say the right thing at the wrong time?
Fortunately, no. As is evident in the pages of this book, the delicate art of
personal persuasion has been transformed into a solid social science.1
Th ere is now a substantial body of systematic research into how people
can be moved to agree with a request. It is worth noting that the persuasive
practices covered in this work rarely concern the merits of the request itself.
Instead, they concern the ways in which the merits are presented. Th ere is
no question that having a strong case is crucial to success. But having a
worthy argument or set of arguments is not enough, because other worthy
(yet competing) arguments are likely to exist as well. So, although making
a good case is important, it’s the person who can make a good case w ell who
will gain the lion’s share of assent. For optimal persuasive eff ect, then, our
focus should be on methods for communicating our case in the most eff ec-
tive manner. A reading of the chapters that follow off ers a rich vein of infor-
mation regarding precisely those methods.
1. I n academic usage a distinction is oft en made between persuasion, which refers to
change in a private att itude or belief resulting from the receipt of a message, and social infl uence,
which refers to socially-induced change in b ehavior and which doesn’t require that att itudes or
beliefs be modifi ed in the process. For the purposes of this essay, however, I employ the term
“persuasion” more broadly, meaning it to include changes of mind, feelings, and/or behavior.
Consequently, I use persuasion and social infl uence interchangeably.
THE ROOTS OF PERSUASION STUDIES
Dangerous Fruit
Before encountering that information, though, a brief foray into the past
is in order. Th e renowned scholar of social infl uence, William McGuire,
determined that in the four millennia of recorded Western history, there
have been only four scatt ered centuries in which the study of persuasion
fl ourished as a craft . Th e fi rst was the Periclean Age of ancient Athens; the
second occurred during the years of the Roman Republic; the next appeared
in the time of the European Renaissance; the last was the 20th century,
which witnessed the advent of large scale advertising, information, and
mass media campaigns (McGuire, 1985). Although this bit of background
seems benign, it possesses an alarming side: Each of the three previous
centuries of systematic persuasion study ended similarly when political
authorities had the masters of persuasion killed.
A moment’s refl ection suggests why this should be. Information about
the persuasion process was dangerous because it created a base of power
entirely separate from those that the authorities of the times controlled.
Persuasion is a way to move people that doesn’t require coercion, intimida-
tion, or brute strength. Eloquent communicators win the day by commis-
sioning forces that heads of state have no monopoly over, such as cleverly
craft ed language, properly placed information, and, most importantly,
psychological insight. To eliminate this rival source of infl uence, it was easi-
est for the rulers to eliminate those few individuals who truly understood
how to engage the process.
O ne aspect of this history appears relevant to the achievement of modern
infl uence goals. Because of a variety of factors that have emerged in com-
mercial, educational, and social contexts (e.g., matrix-based organizational
structures, egalitarian empowerment practices, globalization), hierarchically-
organized command approaches to change are rapidly becoming out-
moded. Increasingly in work sett ings, for example, individuals come
together on a project from diff erent arenas within the same organization.
Th e heterogeneous make-up of these teams makes unclear who is in charge
of whom. Similarly, members of one organization oft en partner with those of
diff erent, cooperating organizations on joint projects. Here, again, issues
of line authority are inapplicable or obscured. Finally, savvy managers, edu-
cators, and government offi cials have always recognized the morale costs of
playing the Because-I’m-the-Boss card. In each of these instances, where
reliance on hierarchical lines of command seems inappropriate, impracti-
cal, or imprudent, some other form of infl uence is preferred. Th at is why a
thoroughgoing knowledge of the process of persuasion can be so valuable.
As the rulers of old recognized, persuasion moves people by means that
[ vi ] Foreword
don’t depend on formal power structures. Quite simply, it can provide infl u-
ence without authority.
R ecall, however, that each of the fi rst three centuries of systematic per-
suasion study ended in the same unsett ling manner — with a purge of the
reigning persuasion experts. Should the recent completion of the last such
century alarm those who master the material in this book, out of justifi ed
fear that they might be included in an impending fourth era of annihilation?
Not this time.
The Flowering of Science
Something revolutionary has happened to the study of persuasion during
the past half-century. In the bargain, the change has rendered ridiculous
the idea that persuasion expertise can be eradicated by eradicating the per-
suasion experts. Alongside the art of persuasion has grown a formidable
science of the process. For well over 50 years, researchers have been apply-
ing a rigorous scientifi c approach to the question of which messages most
successfully lead people to concede, comply, or change. Under controlled
conditions, they have documented the sometimes astonishing impact
of making a request in one fashion versus making the identical request in
a slightly diff erent fashion. Besides the sheer size of the eff ects these
researchers have uncovered, there is another noteworthy aspect of their
results —t hey are repeatable.
Scientists have long employed a set of systematic procedures for discover-
ing and replicating fi ndings, including persuasion fi ndings. As a consequence,
the study of persuasion no longer exists only as an ethereal art. It is now a
science that can reproduce its results. What is more, whoever engages in the
scientifi c process can reproduce its results. Brilliant, inspired individuals are
no longer necessary to divine the truth about persuasion, for a compelling
new reason: Th e power of discovery doesn’t reside, Socrates-style, inside the
minds of a few persuasive geniuses anymore but inside the scientifi c process.
As a consequence, knowledge about persuasion can’t be eliminated by elim-
inating, Socrates-style, those who possess it— b ecause somebody else can
come along, use the same scientifi c procedures, and get the knowledge back
again. So, (whew) we’re all safe from threatened power holders, who should
now be more interested in acquiring the information than abolishing it.
We have a right to feel more than just relieved. We are entitled to feel
encouraged, even emboldened, by the fact that similar procedures can pro-
duce similar persuasion results. If that is indeed the case, it means that per-
suasion is governed by natural laws. Th e upshot is a pair of considerable
advantages for any prospective persuader. First, if persuasion is lawful, it is
learnable. Whether born with an inspired talent for infl uence or not,
Foreword [ vii ]
whether preternaturally insightful about the process or not, whether a gift ed
artisan of the language or not, it is possible to learn how to be more infl uen-
tial. By applying a set of principles that govern the persuasion process, com-
municators can more eff ectively move acquaintances, neighbors, coworkers,
and even superiors (who, I’ve recently learned, include grandchildren) in
desired directions. Second, if persuasion is lawful, it is teachable. Th erefore,
vital communicators can be trained inside our organizations to apply those
same principles to secure crucial commitments, concessions, and consen-
suses. Th e impressive contributors to this volume show us an array of per-
suasion-based lessons that are especially worth learning and teaching.
S cholarly and pragmatic issues aside, I need to acknowledge and convey
my personal reactions to the contents and publication of this book. Although
there is no English term able to capture those reactions completely, there is
a Yiddish word that does the job with remarkable precision. It is kvelling ,
which refers to the process of swelling with pride and delight. Even though
this word (rightly) conjoins the two elements of pride and delight into a
single experience, they are separable and fl ow from diff erent sources. 2
My pride in the book comes from the intense feeling of gratifi cation that
so many respected individuals looked at my work and saw fi t to honor it
in this singularly satisfying way. My delight in the book comes from a recog-
nition of the quality of the product itself. So many times in reading one
or another chapter, I’d say to myself, “Th at’s right, that’s right! Th ey (the
authors) got it exactly right.” Even the sequencing of the chapters was
impressively wrought — something not easy to do and a credit to the char-
acteristic thoughtfulness with which Doug Kenrick, Noah Goldstein, and
Sandy Braver conceived and managed the project.
I recently saw a series of TV commercials for a fi nancial services company
in which a 20-something fellow encounters a much older incarnation of
himself, who att empts to convince the young man that if he just works hard
to do his best, things will go bett er than he could sensibly predict at that
point. If I were to write a version of the ad in which I approached my just-
gett ing-started self with that message, I know I wouldn’t have to say anything
to persuade him to it: I’d only have to hand him a copy of this book. At that
moment in the ad, the camera would register a pair of simultaneously occur-
ring, yet wholly diff erent, facial expressions. Th e young Cialdini would be
displaying absolute astonishment (complete with a tiny run of spitt le from
the corner of his mouth). Th e old guy, on the other hand, would be kvelling .
Robert B. Cialdini
2. Please recognize that, as an academic, I can’t help myself in this analytical bent.
[ viii ] Foreword
CONTENTS
Contributors xi
Introduction: Full Cycle Social Infl uence xv
Douglas T. Kenrick, Noah J. Goldstein, and Sanford L. Braver
1. Six Degrees of Bob Cialdini and Five Principles
of Scientifi c Infl uence 3
Mark Schaller, Douglas T. Kenrick, and Steven L. Neuberg
2. Underestimating One’s Infl uence in Help-Seeking 14
Francis J. Flynn and Vanessa K. Bohns
3. Th e Path of Least Resistance 27
Brad J. Sagarin and Kevin D. Mitnick
4. Fluency and Social Infl uence: Lessons from Judgment
and Decision-Making 39
Petia Petrova, Norbert Schwarz, and Hyunjin Song
5. A Multiprocess Approach to Social Infl uence 49
Richard E. Pett y and Pablo Briñol
6. Basking in Refl ected Glory and Compliance with
Requests from People Like Us 59
Jerry M. Burger
7. Social Norms: A How-To (and How-Not-To) Guide 68
Noah J. Goldstein and Chad R. Mortensen
8. Evolution, Social Infl uence, and Sex Ratio 79
Vladas Griskevicius, Jeff ry A. Simpson, Kristina M. Durante,
John S. Kim, and Stephanie M. Cantu
9. Designed for Social Infl uence 90
John T. Cacioppo and Louise C. Hawkley
10. Social Infl uence on Reproductive Behavior in Humans
and Other Species 98
Abraham P. Buunk, Shelli L. Dubbs, and Jan A.R.A.M. van Hooff
