Table Of ContentSingle-photon Detection for
Data Communication and
Quantum Systems
IOP Series in Advances in Optics, Photonics and Optoelectronics
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Single-photon Detection for
Data Communication and
Quantum Systems
Michael Hofbauer, Kerstin Schneider-Hornstein and Horst Zimmermann
Technische Universität Wien, Vienna, Austria
IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK
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DesignsandPatentsAct1988.
ISBN 978-0-7503-2584-4(ebook)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2582-0(print)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2585-1(myPrint)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2583-7(mobi)
DOI 10.1088/978-0-7503-2584-4
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PublishedbyIOPPublishing,whollyownedbyTheInstituteofPhysics,London
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PA19106,USA
Cover image © 2018 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from B Steindl, M Hofbauer,
K Schneider-Hornstein, P Brandl and H Zimmermann, “Single-Photon Avalanche Photodiode
Based Fiber Optic Receiver for Up to 200 Mb/s,” in IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in
Quantum Electronics, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 1-8, March-April 2018, doi: 10.1109/
JSTQE.2017.2764682.
This book is dedicated to our families.
Contents
Preface ix
Author biographies x
Symbols xii
1 Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) 1-1
1.1 Basics and properties 1-1
1.2 Discrete dedicated SPADs 1-10
1.2.1 Dedicated SPADs 1-10
1.2.2 Silicon Photomultipliers 1-14
1.3 SPADs integrated into CMOS and BiCMOS 1-19
1.3.1 Thin SPADs 1-19
1.3.2 Thick SPADs 1-26
1.4 A model for photon detection probability 1-45
References 1-61
2 Photon-counting modules 2-1
2.1 Quenching 2-1
2.1.1 Passive quenching 2-1
2.1.2 Advanced passive quenching 2-2
2.1.3 Active quenching 2-3
2.2 PCMs using discrete circuits 2-5
2.3 PCMs using integrated circuits 2-8
References 2-26
3 Advanced quenching and gating of integrated SPADs 3-1
3.1 Advanced quenching 3-1
3.1.1 Single-supply-voltage quenching circuit 3-1
3.1.2 Double-supply-voltage quenching circuit 3-3
3.1.3 Triple-supply-voltage quenching circuits 3-5
3.1.4 Quadruple-supply-voltage quenching circuit 3-13
3.2 Gating 3-16
3.2.1 Gating circuit 3-16
3.2.2 Advanced gating circuit 3-17
References 3-18
vii
Single-photonDetectionforDataCommunicationandQuantumSystems
4 SPAD receivers for data communications 4-1
4.1 Modeling of receiver bit error ratio 4-1
4.2 Fiber receivers 4-8
4.3 Optical wireless communications experiments with SPAD receivers 4-20
References 4-23
5 SPADs in quantum applications 5-1
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors 5-2
5.2.1 Key parameters of a single-photon detector 5-3
5.2.2 A comparison of SPADs and SNSPDs 5-6
5.3 Quantum key distribution 5-10
5.3.1 One-time pad 5-11
5.3.2 BB84 protocol 5-12
5.3.3 Ekert protocol 5-19
5.3.4 Quantum random number generator 5-20
5.3.5 Requirements for single-photon detectors in QKD 5-24
5.4 Photonic quantum simulation 5-25
5.4.1 Quantum walk 5-25
5.4.2 Boson sampling 5-28
5.4.3 Requirements for single-photon detectors in quantum simulation 5-29
5.5 Photonic quantum computing 5-31
5.5.1 Requirements for quantum computers 5-31
5.5.2 Qubit 5-32
5.5.3 Photonic two-input gates 5-34
5.5.4 Cluster states 5-42
5.5.5 Requirements for single-photon detectors in 5-43
quantum computing
5.6 Ghost imaging 5-44
5.6.1 Requirements for single-photon detectors in ghost imaging 5-46
5.7 Super-resolution microscopy 5-47
5.7.1 Single-molecule localization microscopy 5-47
5.7.2 Super-resolution quantum microscopy 5-50
5.7.3 Requirements for single-photon detectors in super-resolution 5-51
microscopy
References 5-52
viii
Preface
The era of photodiode integrated circuits (PDICs) started in the 1990s with their
application in audio CD players, CD-ROMs, and DVD systems; this occurred
becausethebandwidthsandtransimpedanceofopticalsensorsconsistingofdiscrete
photodiodes/photodiode arrays and amplifier integrated circuits (ICs) reached a
limit at that time. Since then, rapid progress has been made in the bandwidth/data
rate and quantum efficiency/responsivity of integrated photodiodes and sensor ICs.
The first quantum leap was the integrated p–intrinsic–n photodiode. Avalanche
photodiodes (APDs) in the linear mode then introduced the second step in
performance gain. The newest quantum leap in integrated photodetectors took the
formofAPDsoperatedintheGeigermode,inwhichthedetectionofsinglephotons
is possible.
Integrated photodiodes not only allowed increased bandwidth and transimpe-
dancegains;theywereessentialforimagesensorswithhighandveryhighnumbers
of pixels. Integrated photodiodes offered better immunity to electromagnetic
interference, improved reliability, and, last but not least, they reduced the costs of
many optical sensors.
Single-photondetectionhasbeenthesubjectofhugepublicityintheresearchfield
for more than a decade; much progress has been made using single-photon
avalanche diodes (SPADs) integrated into complementary metal–oxide–semicon-
ductor (CMOS) chips. Many publications cover the topics of SPADs and SPAD
sensor ICs for biomedical applications, imaging, and distance measurement/three-
dimensional sensors. Publications on the use of integrated SPADs for quantum
communications,quantumcryptography,andquantumcomputerapplicationsseem
tobeunderrepresented.Inaddition,thereisanewtrendtowardSPAD-basedoptical
receiversfordataandfree-spacecommunications.Thisbookwillthereforefocuson
the use of SPAD ICs in data communications and quantum systems.
The authors would like to thank Ashley Gasque from IOP Publishing for
proposing the idea for this book. They also wish to thank Dr Bernhard Goll,
DrHiwaMahmoudi,DrReinhardEnne,DrBernhardSteindl,DrDinkaMilovancev,
Dr Alija Dervić, and Saman Kohneh Poushi from our institute for their important
andexcellentcontributionstoourworkonintegratedSPADs.Inaddition,wewould
like to thank Wolfgang Einbrodt, Dr Konrad Bach, Detlef Sommer, Dr Alexander
Zimmer, and Dr Daniel Gäbler from XFAB Semiconductor Foundries for their
long cooperation and for enabling huge progress with silicon PDICs.
Michael Hofbauer, Kerstin Schneider-Hornstein and Horst Zimmermann
Vienna, Austria
ix
Author biographies
Michael Hofbauer
Dr Michael Hofbauer received his Dipl.-Ing. degree in Electrical
Engineering from TU Wien (Vienna University of Technology) in
2011.Hebecamearesearchassistantin2011andauniversityassistant
in 2016. In 2017, he received a doctoral degree from TU Wien. He
finished his doctoral studies sub auspiciis Praesidentis (i.e. with the
highestpossiblehonors).Hismainfieldsofresearchareoptoelectronic
integrated circuits, single-photon detectors, integrated photonics,
distance measurements, and single-event effects. He has authored
andcoauthoredmorethan70journalandconferencecontributions.
Kerstin Schneider-Hornstein
DrKerstinSchneider-HornsteinreceivedtheDipl.-Ing.degreeandthe
Dr.techn.degreefromtheViennaUniversityofTechnology,Austria,
in 2000 and 2004, respectively. Since 2001 she has worked for the
ViennaUniversityofTechnologyintheInstituteofElectrodynamics,
Microwave, and Circuit Engineering, Vienna, Austria. Her major
fields of interest are optoelectronics, photonic-electronic integration,
and integrated circuit design. She is the author of the Springer book
‘Highly Sensitive Optical Receivers’ and the author or coauthor of
more than 65 journal and conference papers.
Horst Zimmermann
DrHorstZimmermannreceivedtheDiplomainPhysicsin1984from
the University of Bayreuth, Germany, and the Dr.-Ing. degree from
theUniversityofErlangen-NürnbergwhileworkingattheFraunhofer
Institute for Integrated Circuits (IIS-B), Erlangen, Germany in 1991.
HewasthenappointedanAlexander-von-HumboldtResearchFellow
atDukeUniversity,Durham,NC,workingondiffusioninSi,GaAs,
and InP until 1992. In 1993, he joined the Chair for Semiconductor
Electronics at Kiel University, Kiel, Germany, where he lectured in
optoelectronicsandworkedonoptoelectronicintegration.Since2000hehasbeenafull
professor for Electronic Circuit Engineering at the Vienna University of Technology,
Vienna, Austria. His main interests are in the design and characterization of analog
andnanometerCMOScircuitsaswellasoptoelectronicintegratedCMOSandbipolar
CMOS circuits, optical wireless communications, single-photon detection, and elec-
tronic–photonicintegration.HeistheauthoroftheSpringerbooks‘IntegratedSilicon
Optoelectronics’ and ‘Silicon Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits’ as well as the
coauthor of ‘Highly Sensitive Optical Receivers,’ ‘Optical Communication over
x
