Single Event Effects in Aerospace

507 Pages·2011·5.63 MB·English

by  Edward Petersen(auth.)

Single Event Effects in
Aerospace
IEEEPress
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IEEEPress EditorialBoard
LajosHanzo,EditorinChief
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J.Anderson B-M.Haemmerli S. Nahavandi
G.W.Arnold M.Lanzerotti T. Samad
F.Canavero D.Jacobson G.Zobrist
KennethMoore,DirectorofIEEEBookandInformationServices(BIS)
Single Event Effects in
Aerospace
Edward Petersen
IEEE PRESS
A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
Copyright©2011bytheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.
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ISBN:978-0-470-76749-8
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
oBookISBN:978-1-118-08432-8
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10987654321
Peterson ftoc.tex V2-06/22/2011 8:00P.M. Pagev
Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Background, 1
1.2 Analysis of Single Event Experiments, 7
1.2.1 Analysis of Data Integrity and Initial Data
Corrections, 7
1.2.2 Analysis of Charge Collection Experiments, 7
1.2.3 Analysis of Device Characteristics from
Cross-Section Data, 7
1.2.4 Analysis of Parametric Studies of Device
Sensitivity, 8
1.3 Modeling Space and Avionics See Rates, 8
1.3.1 Modeling the Radiation Environment at the
Device, 8
1.3.2 Modeling the Charge Collection at the Device, 9
1.3.3 Modeling the Electrical Characteristic and Circuit
Sensitivity for Upset, 9
1.4 Overview of this Book, 10
1.5 Scope of this Book, 11
2. Foundations of Single Event Analysis and
Prediction 13
2.1 Overview of Single Particle Effects, 13
2.2 Particle Energy Deposition, 15
2.3 Single Event Environments, 18
2.3.1 The Solar Wind and the Solar Cycle, 19
2.3.2 The Magnetosphere, Cosmic Ray, and Trapped
Particle Motion, 22
2.3.3 Galactic Cosmic Rays, 24
2.3.4 Protons Trapped by the Earth’s Magnetic Fields, 42
2.3.5 Solar Events, 46
v
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vi Contents
2.3.6 Ionization in the Atmosphere, 48
2.4 Charge Collection and Upset, 58
2.5 Effective Let, 60
2.6 Charge Collection Volume and the Rectangular
Parallelepiped (RPP), 61
2.7 Upset Cross Section Curves, 62
2.8 Critical Charge, 62
2.8.1 Critical Charge and LET Threshold, 63
2.8.2 Critical Charge of an Individual Transistor, Two
Transistors in a Cell, 64
2.8.3 Critical Charge from Circuit Modeling Studies, 65
2.8.4 Sensitivity Distribution Across the Device, 65
2.8.5 Intracell Variation, 66
2.8.6 Summary Discussion of Critical Charge, 66
2.9 Upset Sensitivity and Feature Size, 67
2.10 Cross-Section Concepts, 67
2.10.1 Nuclear Physics Cross-Section Concepts, 67
2.10.2 Single Event Cross-Section Concepts, 72
3. Optimizing Heavy Ion Experiments for Analysis 77
3.1 Sample Heavy Ion Data, 78
3.2 Test Requirements, 78
3.3 Curve Parameters, 80
3.4 Angular Steps, 85
3.5 Stopping Data Accumulation When You Reach the
Saturation Cross Section, 86
3.6 Device Shadowing Effects, 88
3.7 Choice of Ions, 89
3.8 Determining the LET in the Device, 91
3.9 Energy Loss Spread, 94
3.10 Data Requirements, 95
3.10.1 Desired Precision, 95
3.10.2 Desired Accuracy, 97
3.11 Experimental Statistics and Uncertainties, 97
3.12 Effect of Dual Thresholds, 98
3.13 Fitting Cross-Section Data, 99
3.14 Other Sources of Error and Uncertainties, 101
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Contents vii
4. Optimizing Proton Testing 103
4.1 Monitoring the Beam Intensity and Uniformity, 103
4.2 Total Dose Limitations on Testing, 104
4.3 Shape of the Cross-Section Curve, 105
5. Data Qualification and Interpretation 111
5.1 Data Characteristics, 111
5.1.1 Illegitimate, Systematic, and Random Errors, 111
5.1.2 Inherent Random Errors, 113
5.1.3 Fractional Standard Deviation of Your Data, 117
5.1.4 Rejection of Data, 119
5.2 Approaches to Problem Data, 121
5.2.1 Examination of Systematic Errors, 121
5.2.2 An Example of Voltage Variation, 134
5.2.3 Data Inconsistent with LET, 135
5.2.4 Beam Contamination, 135
5.2.5 No Event Observed, 138
5.2.6 Sloppy or Wrong Fits to the Data, 139
5.2.7 Experiment Monitoring and Planning, 141
5.3 Interpretation of Heavy Ion Experiments, 142
5.3.1 Modification of Effective LET by the Funnel, 142
5.3.2 Effects of True RPP Shape, 144
5.3.3 Fitting Data to Determine Depth and Funnel
Length, 149
5.3.4 Deep Device Structures, 152
5.3.5 Cross-Section Curves on Rotated RPP
Structures, 156
5.3.6 Charge Gain Effects on Cross Section, 157
5.4 Possible Problems with Least Square Fitting Using the
Weibull Function, 158
5.4.1 Multiple Good Fits, 158
5.4.2 Reason for Inconsistent Weibull Fitting, 162
6. Analysis of Various Types of SEU Data 165
6.1 Critical Charge, 165
6.2 Depth and Critical Charge, 166
6.3 Charge Collection Mechanisms, 168
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6.3.1 Drift Process and Funneling, 168
6.3.2 Diffusion Process, 168
6.3.3 Plasma Wire Effect, 169
6.3.4 ALPHEN (Alpha-Particle–Source–Drain
Penetration Effect), 169
6.3.5 Bipolar Transistor Effect, 169
6.3.6 Recombination Effects, 169
6.4 Charge Collection and the Cross-Section Curve, 170
6.4.1 CMOS, 170
6.4.2 Hardened CMOS, 171
6.4.3 Bipolar Devices, 171
6.4.4 CMOS-SOI, 172
6.4.5 NMOS–Depletion Load, 172
6.4.6 NMOS–Resistive Load, 172
6.4.7 GaAs HFETs, 173
6.4.8 GaAs C-Higfet, 173
6.4.9 VLSI Process Variation, 173
6.5 Efficacy (Variation of SEU Sensitivity within a Cell), 174
6.5.1 Cross-Section and Efficacy Curves, 174
6.5.2 SEU Efficacy as a Function of Area, 176
6.5.3 Efficacy and SEU Sensitivity Derived from a
Pulsed Laser SEU Experiment, 178
6.6 Mixed-Mode Simulations, 185
6.6.1 Warren Approach, 186
6.6.2 Dodd Approach, 188
6.6.3 Hirose Approach, 189
6.6.4 Simplified Approach of Fulkerson, 189
6.6.5 The Imax, F (Tmax) Approach, 190
6.6.6 Circuit Level Simulation to Upset Rate
Calculations, 194
6.6.7 Multiple Upset Regions, 194
6.6.8 Efficacy and SEU Threshold, 195
6.6.9 From Efficacy to Upset Rates, 197
6.7 Parametric Studies of Device Sensitivity, 198
6.7.1 Data Display and Fitting, 198
6.7.2 Device Parameters and SEU Sensitivity, 202
6.8 Influence of Ion Species and Energy, 215
6.9 Device Geometry and the Limiting Cross Section, 218
6.9.1 Bulk CMOS, 218
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Contents ix
6.9.2 CMOS/SOI, 218
6.9.3 SRAMs, 219
6.10 Track Size Effects, 220
6.11 Cross-Section Curves and the Charge Collection
Processes, 221
6.11.1 Efficacy Curves and the Charge-Collection
Process, 222
6.11.2 Inverse LET Plots and Diffusion, 225
6.12 Single Event Multiple-Bit Upset, 226
6.12.1 Strictly Geometrical MBUs, 227
6.12.2 Proton Induced Multibit Upsets, 230
6.12.3 Dual Hits for Single-Bit Upset, 231
6.12.4 MBU Due to Diffusion in DRAMs, 231
6.12.5 Hits to Adjacent Sensitive Regions, 236
6.12.6 Multibit Upset in FPGAs, 236
6.12.7 Calculation of Upset Rate for Diffusion MBUs, 237
6.12.8 Geometrical MBE Rates in EDAC Words, 238
6.12.9 Statistical MBE Rates in the Space
Environment, 240
6.12.10Impact of Geometrical Errors on System
Performance, 243
6.12.11Statistical MBUs in a Test Environment, 246
6.13 SEU in Logic Systems, 246
6.14 Transient Pulses, 249
7. Cosmic Ray Single Event Rate Calculations 251
7.1 Introduction to Rate Prediction Methods, 252
7.2 The RPP Approach to Heavy Ion Upset Rates, 252
7.3 The Integral RPP Approach, 260
7.4 Shape of the Cross-Section Curve, 264
7.4.1 The Weibull Distribution, 264
7.4.2 Lognormal Distributions, 266
7.4.3 Exponential Distributions, 267
7.5 Assumptions Behind the RPP and IRPP Methods, 270
7.5.1 Device Interaction Models, 270
7.5.2 Critical Charge, 270
7.5.3 Mathematical Basis of Rate Equations, 271
7.5.4 Chord Length Models, 274
7.5.5 Bradford Formulation, 276
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7.5.6 Pickel Formulation, 279
7.5.7 Adams Formulation, 280
7.5.8 Formulation of Integral RPP Approach, 282
7.5.9 HICCUP Model, 284
7.5.10 Requirements for Use of IRPP, 285
7.6 Effective Flux Approach, 285
7.7 Upper Bound Approaches, 287
7.8 Figure of Merit Upset Rate Equations, 288
7.9 Generalized Figure of Merit, 290
7.9.1 Correlation of the FOM with Geosynchronous
Upset Rates, 291
7.9.2 Determination of Device Parameters, 294
7.9.3 Calculation of the Figure of Merit from Tabulated
Parts Characteristics, 295
7.9.4 Rate Coefficient Behind Shielding, 298
7.10 The FOM and the LOG Normal Distribution, 299
7.11 Monte Carlo Approaches, 300
7.11.1 IBM Code, 300
7.11.2 GEANT4, 300
7.11.3 Neutron Induced, 301
7.12 PRIVIT, 302
7.13 Integral Flux Method, 302
8. Proton Single Event Rate Calculations 305
8.1 Nuclear Reaction Analysis, 306
8.1.1 Monte Carlo Calculations, 310
8.1.2 Predictions of Proton Upset Cross Sections Based
on Heavy Ion Data, 311
8.2 Semiempirical Approaches and the Integral Cross-Section
Calculation, 313
8.3 Relationship of Proton and Heavy Ion Upsets, 316
8.4 Correlation of the FOM with Proton Upset Cross
Sections, 317
8.5 Upsets Due to Rare High Energy Proton Reactions, 318
8.6 Upset Due to Ionization by Stopping Protons, Helium Ions,
and Iron Ions, 320
9. Neutron Induced Upset 329
9.1 Neutron Upsets in Avionics, 330