Table Of ContentSignificance of Aspiration in Navaho
Author(s): Gladys A. Reichard
Source: International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Jan., 1948), pp. 15-19
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1263089
Accessed: 18-08-2014 18:53 UTC
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to International Journal
of American Linguistics.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 86.177.102.88 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 18:53:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
SIGNIFICANCE OF ASPIRATION IN NAVAHO
GLADYSA . REICHARD
BARNARCDO LLEGCEO, LUMBUIAN IVERSITY
1. Introduction language and leave no clue to our successors.
2. Augmentative x I have shown how important the gradations
2.1. Definition of sounds in aspiration have become in Navaho so
2.2. Examples that t has sometimes become x, k has be-
2.3. Augmented -tsxis, -tskis whip come x and x has become k.l These changes
2.4. Augmentative as suffix have come about by emphasis on the aspira-
3. Initial versus final aspiration tion and slighting so as to eliminate the
3.1. Final h and initial x initial (perhaps the original or at least
3.2. Final h and s of prefix earlier) sound.
3.3. Final h and y-, y-, and z-, stem In addition to this there is in Navaho a
initials grammatical device in which the clusters
3.4. Distinction between x- and -h tx, sx, tsx, tcx, lx, zy, dzy and possibly others
4. Stem final h indicate an augmentative. A more force-
5. Diversity of change ful action, a state exaggerated in size or
6. Summary quantity, or a pejorative may be expressed
by aspirating the voiceless stem initial so
1. At the outset the recorder of an un- strongly as to form a consonant cluster.
written language does not know what the Correspondingly the voiced initial clusters
sounds of the new language are, yet he has with y, as zy and dz7, but such voiced
to record them. Since he knows nothing clusters are rare.
about them, he does not know which of those
closely related are distinctive, yet if he 2.2. Examples are given in pairs, with
works on a phonemic basis, he wants to the regular form preceding the augmented
record only such sounds. He cannot realize form: -tih cover, wrap, -txih protect, conceal;
his most important aim therefore until he -sal move like a feather, -sxal heavy object
has analyzed a great many forms so as to (as person) moves like a feather; -zi become
include all that is distinctive, to eliminate static, silent, motionless, -zyi be dazed, para-
all that is unnecessary. The best he can lyzed, deadened;2- si make numb, -sxi para-
do is to keep his problems constantly in lyze, deaden' sg' star, sxQ' a so-and-so star;
mind, even after he thinks he has determined -sgs gleam like copper, be pink, -sxQSg litter
his phonemic system. Aspiration in Nav- like a red star; dzq'di here, dzy'di here in
aho illustrates this as well as other po nts this so-and-so place; dzil mountain, dzyil
important not only in the analysis of this a so-and-so mountain; -tsa'z grow big,
language but significant in establishing ge- -tsxa'z grow very large; -tsoh be yellow, -tsxoh
netic relationships as well. be very yellow; -tcah cry, -tcxah scream;
tcqt' excrement (usual household word),
2.1. The sounds represented as t, k, ts, tcxq"< excrement (vulgar); -tcih be red,
and tc may be described as phonemes and we Linguistic Diversity IJAL 11.161-2( 1945).
may take care of the values tye, thye, txye, 2 The principalp arts of the verbs of this pair
two, thwo, txwo and the like by definition. do not correspondin forma s closely as the other
pairs, but they are definitelyr elated (see 2.3).
If however we conclude that tx and kx are a This verb is the causative of -zi, -z-i since
never distinct we neglect one phase of the -l-z > -s- and -t-zy- > -sx.
15
This content downloaded from 86.177.102.88 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 18:53:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
16 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMERICAN LINGUISTICS VOL. XIV
-tcxih be very red, blush; -tcin have odor, tlah-i (-tlah awkward, lefthanded; -i nomin-
exude odor, -tcxin have strong or unpleasant alizing suffix).4 Such forms may be con-
odor; tcin dirt, tcxin parts of person subject sidered as contractions. Hupa has a suffix
to sorcery; :tc' nose, 'tcx' muzzle; -tcQ' bad, -it which, suffixed to the present, forms a
-tcxQ' wicked, essentially bad; -tcQl' bad, VERB CONTINUOUS OVER SPACE5 which must
evil, spoil, ruin, -tcxQgl soil, pollute, dis- be equivalent to Navaho PROGRESSIVE.
credit; 'aitc'i one's personal effects (one's It is no accident therefore that a large num-
junk), 'antcx'i personal effects subject to ber of progressive stems have -1 as the final
sorcery; -la't hate, -Ixa'l (not -I-xa'l) be consonant.
exasperated. Hupa has an augmentative suffix -kyos
(Mattole -gw).7 Navaho has complex rules
2.3. Among some speakers there has of contraction involving assimilation, satu-
been a change from strongly aspirated k ration and extension. A simple application
(kx) to x and, in a few cases, from x to k or of these rules would show that -tcah could
kx. These are individual pronunciations assimilate one palatal at least without
of a single sound. When however x-aug- change, but the form -tcah ostensibly al-
ment occurs, these speakers get a consonant ready had one palatal as shown by its
cluster tsk rather than tsx and this happened final -h (weakened from -y, k or g). Hence
to the stem -tsxis or -tskis jerk forcefully a if another were involved it would be in
long, narrow, flexible object; hence, whip. evidence somewhere since -tcah has reached
I have not found a stem -tsis with a cor- the saturation point for the assimilation of
responding meaning. There is a stem -tsis palatals (or of a particular palatal). Con-
which means absorb, saturate and another sequently -tcah-kyo > -tcxah.
which means tremble,b ut these are distinct Here then the meaning which was easy
from the augmented -tsxis. The principal to ascertain gives us: two possible reasons
parts of all augmented forms correspond for a peculiar form like -tskis jerk ropelike
with those of the regular forms except for object, vigorously, whip, switch, with -tsxis
the stem initial, that is, the vowels, vowel more common; a reason for the unusual x
changes with lengthening (as -tsxis pro- stem-initial without the -1- classifier; a
gressive and -tsxa's inceptive), tone and clue to the phonetic and functional com-
closing consonant are the same. This simi- position of the verb stem; an explanation of
larity provides a test for the augment. genetic relationship in the loss of a suffix
and the consequent change of the stem.
2.4. I have laid emphasis on one part Father Berard in his first conversation
of a sound rather than another as a possible with me years ago showed his realization of
cause of origin (2.1), but there may be an the presence of a phonemic x and to some
historical cause: x or k of the consonant extent recorded tx, tsx and tcx; but since
cluster may be a survival of an old suffix. he did not differentiate the non-functional
Final -h of the stem is as important as h aspiration from the consonant cluster or
in any other position since it may point to analyze the use of x, his texts are wavering
relationship with final -y or other palatal, and inconsistent.
for instance, Navaho -tcah cry, weep;
Chipewyan -tcay cry. 4Cp. H. Hoijer, IJAL 11.125 (1945).
Comparison of Navaho with California 5 P. E. Goddard, Athapaskan (Hupa) (Hand-
Athapaskan suggests the incorporation of book of American Indian Languages, BBAE
40.123).
suffixes in the verb-stem. Instances of the
6 Ibid. p. 107.
process are even demonstrable in Navaho 7 Fang-Kuei Li, Mattole, An Athabaskan Lan-
as tl&'h Lefty, the left-handed-one from guage, p. 137 (University of Chicago, 1930).
This content downloaded from 86.177.102.88 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 18:53:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
NO. 1 SIGNIFICANCE OF ASPIRATION IN NAVAHO 17
The Sapir-Hoijer texts8 do not differen- gressively (dah-suspended; yi-prog.;0 -'Al
tiate the regular forms from the augmenta- round object moves prog.).
tives because they treat both types of initial dahi'a-h round object is starting motion
as a single phoneme. forward (dah-forward; yi-cont.; -'a-h round
object moves pres.).
3. There is some question about the dahidi'a-h hang it (hat) up (dah-sus-
initial occurrence of h- or x-. Sapir's pended; yi-SS obj.; di-start from; yi-cont.;
informants seemed indifferent whether one yi-pause; -n-S2 subj.; -'a-h round object
or the other should be used; mine were moves inc. cess.)."
strongly opposed to a sound as weak as h-
for an initial, whether used with vowel -a-, 3.1. Compare with these forms the fol-
-e-, -i- or -o-. They preferred x- for initial, lowing in which -h of dah- may be con-
-h for final in an element or stem.9 It is tracted with x- of xi- repetitive of motion:
possible that we may not be able to deter- daxidy67 he (or they dual) had started forth
mine which is correct. Doubtless now both repeatedly moving a load; they had loaded
are, but if we leave the way open for new (unloaded) (dah-forth; xi-rep. motion; di-
information to be secured from analysis start from; si-pf.; -ni-completive; -yi load
and comparison with other Athapaskan moves pf.).
and with other individual Navaho speakers In the next forms -h does not assimilate
we may ultimately find a reason for the to following y- because yi'z- and yiz- con-
differences. sist of so many elements that they do not
It is important to determine whether readily tolerate further contraction and
we have x or h in any position because not remain intelligible.
only may x or h be used as a simple means dahyi'z'4 he repeatedly laid a round ob-
of indicating the analysis of forms, but also ject up (on it); he repeatedlym ovedi t a round
if the forms are not the same, the elements object (so as) to suspend; he put them up one
probably have a different origin. For by one (dah-suspended; yi-SS obj.; yi-rep.
instance, xi- the prefix of REPETITIVEM O- aspect; si-pf. > -z in this setting; -'4 round
obj. moves pf.).
TION is related to yi- REPETITIVEA SPECT,
but is not identical with it; to yi- which has dahdayiz'4 each one held a round object;
they (each one) moved it a round obj. sus-
the same meaning as xi- but results from
pended (dah-suspended; da-pl.; yi-SS obj.;
contraction with yet another yi- (that is,
si-pf.; -'4 round obj. is, static).
xi-yi-yi-); and to si-harm, but the final One may hear dahi-z'4 he repeatedly
aspiration of a prefix like dah- contracts moved a round object up and dahdaiz'4
properly with other prefixes to produce each one held it (round obj.) but the purists,
different results even though they may have usually old conservatives, consider these
a yi- form. forms wrong. They say the young men
A few examples follow: dah- suspended, (and of course the non-purists) do not show
on top of (with static verbs), forward,
forth (with verbs of motion) can assimilate 10T he followinga bbreviationsa re used: 1, 2,
3, 4 persons;S 3-3 the first numberr efers to the
yi-PROGRESSIVE, yi-CONTINUATIVEa nd yi- subject, the secondt o the object; cess. cessative;
s3 OBJECT. cont. continuative; inc. inceptive; obj. object;
dahi'AI suspended round object moves pro- opt. optative; pf. perfective; pl. plural; pres.
present; prog. progressive; rep. repetitive; S
8 Navaho Texts (Linguistic Society of America, singular; subj. subject.
Iowa City, 1942). 1 Cp. Navaho Phonology. p. 39. But note
9 Navaho Phonology. pp. 12, 15-7, 19-24 (Uni- that Hoijer's use of augment is phonemic whereas
versity of New Mexico Press, 1945). mine is morphological.
This content downloaded from 86.177.102.88 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 18:53:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
18 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AMERICAN LINGUISTICS VOL. XIV
proper understanding of the repetitive and to be a struggle between h-s>h and h-s>s
often of other yi- (xi-) forms and are in- and in some cases one dominates, in others,
different to the distinctions. The signifi- the other, and there may even be cases where
cant point of this discussion and these ex- both are allowed.
amples is the fact that Xi-REPETITIVEO F Although I have seen examples in texts
ACTION breaks down in certain settings to other than mine and although Hoijer gen-
yi-, yi- and perhaps even to si-, but yi-s3 eralizes that -h before s- becomes s (-h-s->-
OBJECT, yi-PROGRESSIVE, yi-CONTINUATIVE s-), I have not found it." I get dahsiti
and yi-REPETITIVE OF ASPECTd o not. The he lies on top rather than dasitj. Similarly,
points at which these changes occur (by I get do'ahsoxodo'b&jdah it is hopeless,
contraction), since they are distinctive, in both cases with -h of dah- and 'ah-
furnish the tests for each prefix. definitely aspirated. The example dacdi'yA
he paused starting forth (my translation)
3.2. Still another problem of final h of Sapir-Hoijer Navaho Texts 132:28 I
of a prefix is its relationship to s, and I analyze as follows: dah- forward; -j- for
have the following apparently alternant dji- S4 subject with dah-j->dac- since h
forms. unvoices a voiced fricative with which it
dahi'a'h it a round obj. is movingf orward; comes in contact; di- start from (frequently
it round obj. suspended starts motion (dah- dah-di- are used with verbs of motion);
suspended; yi-cont.; -'a'h round obj. moves yi-prog.; yi-pause; di-yi-yi- > di--; -y& one
pres.). person goes (PF).
dahi'a-h, dasi'a'h you are moving it sus- The assimilation of s to preceding h is
pended round obj.; you are carrying it (dah- another debatable question which needs
suspended; yi-SS obj.; yi-cont.; -n-S2 subj.; more attention especially since, once more,
-'a'h round obj. moves pres.). different prefixes are involved and may
dahi'a-h, dahyi'ah, dasa'a'h he is carry- perhaps be differentiated. It seems, for
ing it round obj. (dah-suspended; yi-S3 obj.; instance, that dah-si-harm > dahi-, but
yi-cont.; -'a'h round obj. moves pres.). dah-si-PF. > dahsi-.
I happen to have these examples as para-
digm alternants; unfortunately they are not 3.3. My experience suggests that pho-
in context. I therefore am unable to check netic laws which apply to prefixes apply
them semantically at the moment but I also to the relationship between prefix and
suggest that si- forms, which appear in the stem. This is shown by such forms as
dual as well as singular but not in the plural, xonoh-s4 you 2 are wise (STATIC) with -oh-
belong to the si- paradigm rather than to the ya->-ohs4; nohsol from noh-yol you 2 are
dah- one. There is a prefix si- which means driving a few animals along (PROG.); dohsi*l
harm, danger, difficulty, disintegration, hope- you two will eat it (-^y'l eat PROG.); yo'hsijh
lessness, fatality used with verbs of killing, stand up you INC. CESS. OPT. (-zi'h stand).
injuring, disintegrating, undoing. This pre- These forms demonstrate the instability of
fix is distinct from the si-perfective since stem initials y, y and z; stem initials such
it occurs in the progressive and continuative as these furnish specific genetic clues.
as well as in the si-perfective where it
markedly affects the forms. This prefix 3.4. Since the final and initial aspirates
si-harm also breaks down to yi-, usually do not behave alike and since their dis-
however in different ways and in different tinction may be determined by the prin-
forms from Xi-REPETITIVE OF ACTION, and ciples of contraction which work out in
possibly from dah-yi-coNTINUATIvE. When a regular way, it seems to me that we have
contracting with other prefixes there seems here good evidence that my informants
This content downloaded from 86.177.102.88 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 18:53:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
NO. 1 SIGNIFICANCE OF ASPIRATION IN NAVAHO 19
have reason for insisting on a distinction portant morphological devices which may
between x-initial and -h final. be missed by considering certain sounds the
same before sufficiently extensive analyses
4. The problem is more direct when the are made. Navaho interpreters, some of
final aspiration of verb-stems is concerned. whom have analytic ability, object to con-
A mass of material may be assembled to sidering the strongly aspirated initial sound
indicate that processes occurred by which the same as the final aspirate which is very
-y and perhaps other palatals were lightened lightly articulated. The use of x after a
to become -x and -h although they some- consonant to form a consonant cluster of
times seem to have become ' as the stems the type Cx was discussed as a hitherto
were developed by one tribe and another.l2 unrecognized grammatical device to express
I believe that reliable recordings of these augmentation (except incidentally by Wil-
languages and comparison with Navaho liam Morgan).14 The discussion of this
will show whence various portions of the device is an example of the overlapping of
Navaho vocabulary derive. At least cer- processes which often result in similar
tain processes and changes point to the forms in Navaho-augmentation of the
west, others outstandingly to the north. stem initial may be due to emphasis on
At any rate, the final consonant of the aspiration or to incorporation of a suffix in
Navaho stem is often -h, probably not -x, the stem.
except when exaggerated by the x-speakers.13 Verbs show different phonetic patterns
depending upon the relative effect of one
5. The fact that the x-speakers exag- prefix on another, a prefix ending in -h
gerate all aspirate sounds should warn us dominates certain initials with which it
once more of a well-established fact, that comes in contact, whereas x-initial shows
changes may have come about as tribes different effects. These facts suggest that
with their speech peculiarities moved away phonetic -h and x- indicate different pho-
from others, but that the old forms may nemes; in my opinion dependent on causes
have been restored, sometimes even by other than their position before a particular
different processes, and are not necessarily vowel. All of these factors, as well as the
survivals. presence or absence of stem final -h are of
value for purposes of reconstructing forms
6. This paper aims to point out the and determining genetic relationships.
possibility of error in a premature deter-
mination of phonemes, illustrating im- 14 Young, Robert W. and Morgan, William.
The Navaho Language, p. 142 (Education Divi-
2 IJAL 11.165 (1945). sion, U. S. Indian Service, Phoenix, Arizona,
13 IJAL 11.159 (1945). 1943).
This content downloaded from 86.177.102.88 on Mon, 18 Aug 2014 18:53:44 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
