Table Of ContentSHIPPING
IN ARCTIC
WATERS
A Comparison of
the Northeast,
Northwest and
Trans Polar Passages
Willy Østreng
Karl Magnus Eger
Brit Fløistad
Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl
Lars Lothe
Morten Mejlænder-Larsen
and
Tor Wergeland
Shipping in Arctic Waters
A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest
and Trans Polar Passages
Willy Østreng, Karl Magnus Eger, Brit Fløistad,
Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl, Lars Lothe, Morten Mejlænder-Larsen
and Tor Wergeland
Shipping in Arctic
Waters
A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest
and Trans Polar Passages
Published in association with
Praxis Publishing
Chichester, UK
Willy Østreng Karl Magnus Eger Brit Fløistad
University of Alaska Fairbanks Ocean Futures Ocean Futures
and Ocean Futures Oslo Oslo
Oslo Norway Norway
Norway
(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:192)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:161)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:16)(cid:39)(cid:68)(cid:75)(cid:79) Lars Lothe Morten Mejlænder-Larsen
Ocean Futures Ocean Futures Det Norske Veritas
Oslo Oslo Høvik
Norway Norway Norway
Tor Wergeland
Copenhagen
Denmark
http://www.arctis-search.com/
SPRINGER-PRAXIS BOOKS IN GEOPHYSICAL SCIENCES
SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: Philippe Blondel, C.Geol., FGS., Ph.D., M.Sc.,
Senior Scientist, Department of Physics, University of Bath, UK
ISBN 978-3-642-16789-8 ISBN 978-3-642-16790-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-16790-4
Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012947034
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal
reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied
specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use
by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only
under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and
permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained
through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under
the respective Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility
for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or
implied, withrespecttothematerialcontainedherein.
Cover design: Jim Wilkie
Project copy editor: Rachael Wilkie
Typesetting: David Peduzzi
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Contents
(cid:47)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:74)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86) ................................................................................................................... xi
List of tables................................................................................................................... xiii
(cid:36)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86) ........................................................................................................... xv
(cid:41)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:71) ....................................................................................................................... xvii
(cid:50)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:41)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)Shipping in Arctic Waters ........................................... xxi
(cid:54)(cid:88)(cid:80)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:92)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)
(cid:36)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:86) ................... xxiii
(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86) ..................................................... 1
(cid:20)(cid:3) (cid:55)(cid:3) (cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:50)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)
(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86) ................................................................................................... 11
1.1 The transportation passages of the Arctic Ocean ......................................... 12
1.1.1 The Northeast Passage and the Northern Sea Route ......................... 13
1.1.2 Intra-Arctic, destination-Arctic and transit routes of the Northern
Sea Route ........................................................................................... 18
1.1.3 The Northwest Passage ...................................................................... 22
1.1.4 Intra-Arctic, destination-Arctic and transit routes in the Northwest
Passag e ............................................................................................... 27
1.1.5 The Transpolar passage ...................................................................... 30
1.1.6 Intra-Arctic, destination-Arctic and transit routes in the High Seas
of the Arctic Ocean ............................................................................ 33
1.1.7 Connecting corridors in southern waters ........................................... 35
1.1.8 The Northern Maritime Corridor ....................................................... 35
(cid:20)(cid:17)(cid:20)(cid:17)(cid:28)(cid:3) (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:192)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:85) ........................................................... 37
v
vi Contents
1.1.10 The “Fram Corridor” ......................................................................... 41
1.1.11 The “Davis Corridor” ........................................................................ 42
(cid:21)(cid:3) (cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3) ............................................. 47
2.1 The state of the Arctic: The six features combined ...................................... 48
(cid:21)(cid:17)(cid:20)(cid:17)(cid:20)(cid:3) (cid:58)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:16)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:192)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:74)(cid:72) .................. 53
2.1.2 Lack of adequate applied shipping technology ................................. 54
2.1.3 Subordination of civil needs to military interests ............................. 56
2.1.4 The rise of new economic interests in Arctic energy ......................... 58
2.1.5 Availability of ocean space and extended security ............................ 59
2.2 The big Arctic insiders: The USA and Russia .............................................. 61
2.2.1 US Arctic policy ................................................................................ 61
2.2.2 Russian Arctic policy ......................................................................... 64
2.3 The small Arctic insiders .............................................................................. 66
2.3.1 The Arctic Five and the Arctic Three ................................................ 67
2.4 The Arctic insider and outsider: The EU ...................................................... 68
2.4.1 EU Arctic policy ................................................................................ 69
2.5 The Arctic outsiders: Asian states ................................................................. 72
2.5.1 China .................................................................................................. 72
2.5.2 Japan .................................................................................................. 75
2.5.3 South Korea ....................................................................................... 75
2.5.4 India ................................................................................................... 76
2.6 Geopolitics and the regional informal operational regime ........................... 76
(cid:22)(cid:3) (cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87) ...... 83
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 83
(cid:22)(cid:17)(cid:21)(cid:3) (cid:36)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86) ...................................... 84
3.3 World economic and shipping trends ........................................................... 86
3.3.1 Shifting patterns of trade ................................................................... 89
3.3.2 Trade by destination ........................................................................... 90
3.3.3 World oil and gas production and consumption ................................ 94
3.3.4 International shipping trends ............................................................. 96
3.4 Arctic resources ............................................................................................ 98
3.4.1 Oil and gas ......................................................................................... 98
3.4.2 Undiscovered oil and gas resources in the Arctic ............................ 101
3.4.3 Other mineral resources ....................................................................105
3.4.4 Forests and forestry .......................................................................... 107
(cid:22)(cid:17)(cid:23)(cid:17)(cid:24)(cid:3) (cid:41)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:86)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86) ............................................................................. 109
3.5 N WP: Economies, resources, shipping and competing modes
of transport .................................................................................................. 112
3.5.1 The economy and resources of the North American Arctic ............. 112
3.5.2 NWP: Shipping and Arctic resources .............................................. 113
3.6 NEP: Economies, resources and competing modes of transport ............... 117
3.6.1 Economy and resources of Arctic Russia and Norway .................... 117
3.6.2 Transportation infrastructure of the Russian Arctic ......................... 121
Contents vii
3.7 NEP: Shipping ............................................................................................ 126
3.8 Arctic shipping routes, Arctic shipping, and Arctic resources ................... 129
3.9 Arctic cruise activity ................................................................................... 133
3.9.1 Cruise activity around Greenland and Svalbard .............................. 135
3.9.2 Ships used in Arctic expeditions ...................................................... 136
3.9.3 Main specialist operators ................................................................. 137
3.9.4 The current status of cruises and expeditions in Arctic passages .... 140
3.9.5 Arctic cruises in the future ............................................................... 140
3.10 Some concluding remarks .......................................................................... 141
(cid:23)(cid:3) (cid:40)(cid:81)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86) ............................... 147
(cid:23)(cid:17)(cid:20)(cid:3) (cid:49)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:192)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74) ........................... 147
4.2 P ollution in the Arctic and shipping as an independent source
of pollution ................................................................................................. 149
4.2.1 Ship pollution ................................................................................... 150
4.3 Arctic ecosystems and the impact by shipping activities ........................... 151
4.3.1 Marine ecosystems on the Northeast Passage ................................. 153
4.3.2 Marine ecosystems on the Northwest Passage ................................ 156
4.3.3 Marine ecosystems on the Transpolar Passage ................................ 158
4.4 Effects of oil spill in Arctic waters ............................................................. 159
4.4.1 Oil spill response in the Arctic ......................................................... 160
4.4.2 Oil spill response systems on the Northeast Passage ....................... 161
4.4.3 Oil spill response systems on the Northwest Passage ..................... 162
4.5 Variability of natural conditions and shipping possibilities in the Arctic ... 163
4.5.1 Natural conditions and navigation through the Northeast Passage . 164
4.5.2 Natural conditions and navigation through the Northwest Passage 168
4.5.3 Natural conditions and navigation through the Transpolar Passage 172
4.6 Some concluding remarks .......................................................................... 172
(cid:24)(cid:3) (cid:54)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:72) ..................................................................... 177
5.1 Technical requirements for ships operating in the Arctic ........................... 177
5.1.1 National technical requirements ...................................................... 182
5.2 Crew training and competence requirements in Arctic waters ................... 189
5.2.1 National crew training and competence requirements ..................... 193
5.2.2 Current practices on the Northern Sea Route,
the Northwest Passage and the Transpolar Passage ......................... 195
5.3 Search and rescue in Arctic Waters ............................................................ 197
5.3.1 Communication and support to navigation on the Northeast
Passage ............................................................................................. 200
5.3.2 Communication and support to navigation on the Northwest
Passage ............................................................................................. 204
5.3.3 Communication and support to navigation on the Transpolar
Passage ............................................................................................. 206
5.3.4 Communication and support to navigation on connecting
sea routes ......................................................................................... 208
viii Contents
5.4 Arctic ports and terminals .......................................................................... 209
5.4.1 Russian ports and terminals on the Northeast Passage/Northern Sea
Route ................................................................................................ 209
5.4.2 Canadian ports on the Northwest Passage ....................................... 218
5.5 The costs and bureaucratic procedures of Arctic shipping ......................... 220
5.5.1 Costs and fees on the Northern Sea Route ....................................... 220
5.5.2 Costs and fees on the Northwest Passage ........................................ 223
5.6 Marine insurance in Arctic waters .............................................................. 224
5.6.1 Marine insurance aspects of the Northern Sea Route/Northeast
Passage ............................................................................................. 224
5.6.2 Marine insurance aspects of the Northwest Passage ....................... 229
5.6.3 Marine insurance aspects of the Transpolar Passage ....................... 230
5.7 Information needed in order to make further risk assessments .................. 230
5.8 Some concluding remarks .......................................................................... 232
(cid:25)(cid:3) (cid:50)(cid:3) (cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:90)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:77)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:178)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:3)
(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:183)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:86) ........................................................................................................ 241
6.1 I nternational ocean law, IMO Guidelines, “Soft Law” including corporate
governance and Arctic initiatives ............................................................... 242
6.1.1 International ocean law: Coastal maritime zones ............................ 242
6.1.2 The Polar Code: IMO Guidelines .................................................... 244
6.1.3 “Soft law”, including corporate governance and social
responsibility .................................................................................... 246
6.1.4 An Arctic Treaty: Still of interest and relevance? ........................... 248
6.2 The Northeast Passage ................................................................................ 250
6.2.1 Northern Norway and Svalbard: Coastal waters ............................ 250
6.2.2 Russian Federation: Coastal waters ................................................. 251
6.2.3 Historical sectorial controversies and the legal uncertainties
of sea ice: Still relevant? .................................................................. 253
6.3 The Northwest Passage ............................................................................... 263
6.3.1 Greenland: Coastal waters ............................................................... 263
6.3.2 Canada: Coastal waters .................................................................... 263
6.3.3 United States – Coastal water s........................................................ 266
6.3.4 Jurisdictional controversy ................................................................ 266
6.4 The Transpolar Passage .............................................................................. 269
6.5 Indigenous peoples’ rights .......................................................................... 269
6.5.1 International conventions and declarations ..................................... 271
6.5.2 Regional cooperation ....................................................................... 274
6.5.3 The Northeast Passage: Indigenous peoples .................................... 275
6.5.4 The Northwest Passage: Indigenous peoples ................................... 279
6.5.5 The Transpolar Passage ................................................................... 287
(cid:26)(cid:3) (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:81) ................ 299
(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:20)(cid:3) (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81) ...................................................... 300
7.2 Geopolitics and power constellations ......................................................... 300
Contents ix
7.2.1 The location of the Arctic Ocean ..................................................... 301
7.2.2 The water spaces of transportation within the passages .................. 302
7.2.3 Operational spaces of military and civil activities ........................... 305
7.2.4 Connecting corridors in southern waters ........................................ 308
7.3 S hipping, resources, economic trends and alternative
means of transport ...................................................................................... 309
7.3.1 The resources and the economies of the Arctic ............................... 309
7.3.2 Developments in the world economy .............................................. 309
(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:22)(cid:17)(cid:22)(cid:3) (cid:54)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:193)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)
and shipping routes ..................................................................................... 313
7.3.4 Cruise shipping ................................................................................ 315
7.4 Environmental challenges and other operating conditions ........................ 316
7.4.1 Arctic shipping and impacts on marine ecosystems ........................ 316
7.4.2 Oil spill response on Arctic transportation passages ....................... 318
7.4.3 Natural conditions and shipping on the Arctic
transport passages ....................................................................................... 319
7.5 Shipping and Arctic infrastructure .............................................................. 321
7.5.1 Technical requirements for ships operating in Arctic waters ........... 321
7.5.2 Crew training and competence requirements in Arctic waters ........ 324
7.5.3 Search and rescue in Arctic waters .................................................. 325
7.5.4 Arctic ports and terminals ................................................................ 328
7.5.5 The costs and bureaucratic procedures of Arctic shipping .............. 329
7.5.6 Arctic marine insurance ................................................................... 331
7.6 O cean law, coastal waters, jurisdictional controversies and indigenous
peoples’ rights ............................................................................................. 333
7.6.1 International ocean law, recommendations and governance ........... 333
7.6.2 Indigenous peoples’ rights ............................................................... 335
7.7 Commercial comparisons of Arctic transit routes ...................................... 340
7.7.1 Benchmark Route 1: General cargo ship from Yokohama
to Hamburg via Suez........................................................................ 340
7.7.2 Benchmark Route 2: Container ship from Shanghai to Hamburg
via Suez ........................................................................................... 341
7.7.3 Northeast Passage comparisons ...................................................... 341
7.7.4 Northwest Passage comparisons ...................................................... 346
7.7.5 Transpolar Passage comparisons ..................................................... 346
7.7.6 Some comments on some of the assumptions ................................. 348
(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:26)(cid:3) (cid:36)(cid:71)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:71) ............................................................... 351
7.7.8 The Passages in comparison ............................................................ 351
7.7.9 Endnote: The commercial development of the NSR ....................... 352
(cid:37)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:92) .................................................................................................................. 355
(cid:50)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86) ................................................................................................................. 374
(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:91) ............................................................................................................................... 381
