Shia-Ismaili Motifs in the Sufi Architecture of the Indus Valley 1200-1500 AD Hasan Ali Khan

347 Pages·2017·38.32 MB·English

Shia-Ismaili Motifs in the Sufi Architecture of the Indus Valley
1200-1500 A.D.
Hasan Ali Khan
School of Oriental and African Studies
PhD Arts and Humanities
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TEXT
Abstract
The study of the relationship between Shiism and Sufism is one of the most unexplored
areas of Islamic studies, which has traditionally been hindered by the lack of primary
sources. This is especially so in the case of Ismailism in the Indo-Iranian world, where
that denomination held sway in the latter medieval Islamic era. ?
Fortunately, in the case of the Indus Valley, certain religious ceremonies and a number of
monuments common to the medieval Ismaili da’wa (mission) and the associated
Suhrawardi Sufi Order, have survived. The comparison of the religious ceremonial at the
shrine of the renowned Ismaili missionary Shams, with the iconography found on
contemporaneous Suhrawardi monuments yields the covert connection that had existed
between them. This was through an astrological framework based on the Persian New
Year, and the vice regency and succession of the first Shia Imam Ali, as declared in the
last sermon of the Prophet according to all Shiism. The nature and use of this framework
is necessarily Ismaili in the Indus Valley. The astrological resonances of Ali’s vice
regency and succession to Muhammad were first intercalated by Shams with the local
calendar for the benefit of his followers, and subsequently used to create a transcendental
multi-faith Islamic system called the Satpanth, or True Path. The application of the
Satpanth is found as astrological symbolism on the monuments of the Suhrawardi Order.
In addition, an unorthodox monument archetype which is common to the buildings
associated with both Ismaili missionaries and Suhrawardi Sufis endorses this connection
further. A combination of extant religious ceremonial and iconography^ the common
monument archetype and a critical re-examination of history with local sources
constitutes the methodological process which shows the covert Shia-Ismaili beliefs of the
Suhrawardi Order in the Indus Valley. In the present day, these monuments are at risk of
being destroyed by the Pakistani state apparatus, which traditionally sees Suhrawardi Sufi
heritage in a Sunni light. This pressure has been accentuated in the aftermath of the
Afghan War when puritanical elements made inroads into the official bodies which
manage these monuments and shrines.
Declaration
I hereby solemnly declare that all the work here-in is exclusively my own, which I have
put together using the guidelines and academic format prescribed by the University of
London for PhD theses, adhering to all the pre-conditions and limits prescribed there-in
to the best of my ability without fault,
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u - o f r - a o o q
Date:......................................................................................
i
Abstract
The relationship between Shiism and Sufism is one of the most unexplored areas of
Islamic studies. Its study has traditionally been hindered by the lack of primary sources.
This is especially so in the case of Ismailism in the medieval Islamic Era, which is more
easily associable to Sufism. Ismaili associations with early Sufism go back to the Fatimid
Era in Egypt of which the Indus Valley was a part. This is in the tenth century when
dominant Ismaili and Twelver states ruled the Middle East. After the destruction of these
Shia states by the incoming Sunni Turkic dynasties, Ismailism went underground in Iran
and its ideas reappeared in the shape of Sufi Orders in Iraq, most prominently the
Suhrawardi Order. In this period, Ismailism flourished again in the Indus Valley under
missionaries sent from neighboring Iran, who freely worked on the metaphysical
commonality between Indian and Iranian cultures for their proselytism. Its zenith was
reached under the Ismaili missionary Shams in the thirteenth century, who after a long
spate of problems in his host country, perfected a system of metaphysical interlacing
called the Satpanth, or true path, setting up ceremonies which tied him to the Suhrawardi
Sufi Order which preexisted here. This association led to the falling out of the court
patronised order with the Imperial Authorities in Delhi. The Satpanth worked through an
astrological framework based on the Persian New Year, and the vice ^regency of the first
Shia Imam Ali, which is the basis of the Shia faith. The astrological resonances of Alt’s
succession or vice^regency to Muhammad were known to Muslim scholars in the Iranian
Shia-Ismaili tradition before Shams’s time, but are historically first interlaced by Shams
with the local calendar for the benefit of his followers. The Satpanth later found its way
as astrological symbolism on the monuments of the Suhrawardi Order. In addition, an
unorthodox monument archetype which accommodates Satpanth ideals is common to the
buildings associated with Shams, his descendants and Suhrawardi Sufis over three
centuries. Evidence suggest that Shams may have been responsible this archetype. A
comparison between extant religious ceremony, iconography and the common monument
archetype in the latter chapters shows the covert Shia-Ismaili beliefs of the Suhrawardi
Order in the Indus Valley. This complements the critical reexamination of historical
sources for the purpose in the first half of the thesis.
Contents
List of Illustrations vii
Acknowledgements xi
Preface xiii
Introduction
Pakistani State History* the Arab Era and the Ghaznavids 1
The Shia Century 9
The resurgence of Sunnism under the Ghaznavids 16
Chapter One: The Suhrawardi Order
An Historic Overview 23
The Suhrawardi Order in the Indus Valley: A Religious and Political Overview 28
Shaykh Sadr afdin Arif 36
Religious and Sectarian Affiliations of Zakariya 40
Zakariya’s hidden Shia leanings 45
Shah Rukn-e-Alam 46
Conclusion 54
Chapter Two: Shams
Dispelling Anecdotes about Uch 56
The Hagiography of Shams: The Itinerary of Shams’s Arrival to Multan 61
The River and the Arrival from Uch 72
The Shams Taziya 75
The Religious Ceremonial at the shrine of Shams 80
Chetir, Chaharshamba-yi Suri and a Vedic Nauroz 82
iii
Sakhi Sarwar 89
Conclusion 94
Chapter Three: The Suhrawardi Order at Ueh
Jalal al-din Surkhposh 97
Jahaniyan Jahangasht 102
Sadr al-din Rajjan Qattal (Sayyid Raju) 106
The Jalali Dervishes 108
Shiism 112
Breakdown 114
Conclusion 118
Chapter Four: Conceptual Connections between Shiism, Sufism, and the Religion
of the Medieval Ismailis, the Satpanth
Introduction 121
The Concept of Wilayat in Shiism and Sufism 123
Ghadir-Khumm, Nauroz, Wilayat and Majlisi 126
Omar Khayyam, Nauroz, and the Jalali Calendar 131
Ghadir-Khumm, the Concept of Wilayat in Sufism, and Islamic Scripture 138
Application of the Jafr Dhikr formulae to Nad-e-Ali and Ayat al-Kursi 145
Ghadir-Khumm, Nauroz and Architecture: The Representation of the concept
of Wilayat through astrological Symbolism; the Case of Fatimid Cairo 148
The Wilayat of Ali envisaged as a building 152
Nauroz and the Bibi Jaiwandi Monument Complex 156
Representation of Multiple Religious Identities within the Satpanth 158
The Exaltation of the Soul of God in Suhrawardi Doctrine 160
Conclusion 165
Chapter Five: The Suhrawardi Monuments at Multan, Architecture in
Dissimulation
Entrance and Axiality in orthodox Islamic burial, The Qibla direction 169
The Shams Monument and Sakhi Sarwar 171
Baha al-din Zakariya’s Monument 182
Shah Rukn-e-Alam; History of the Monument: Construction and Myths 184
The Plan 188
Unorthodox Elements: Ground Floor 193
The Interior 197
The Mihrab 199
Unorthodox Symbols on the Second Storey 209
Conclusion 214
Chapter Six: The Da’wa and Suhrawardi Monuments at Uch
Nasirabdin 217
Sadr al-din 223
Hasan Kabir al-din 230
The Surkhposh Khanqah and adjoining monuments 240
The Jahangasht and Sayyid Raju Khanqahs 241
The Surkhposh Khanqah 247
The Chillah Rooms and the Surkhposh Mosque 251
The Bibi Jaiwandi Pentagram Complex 257
The Bibi Jaiwandi Complex: Construction History and Myths 262
Similarity between Hidden Shia Symbolism at the Bibi Jaiwandi Complex
and Rukn-e-Alam 264
Multi-faith Satpanth Symbolism on the Bibi Jaiwandi Monuments 266
The Burial Symbolism of Five Traditions 273
Conclusion: Suhrawardi Pluralism as Architecture 276
One of the Seven Uchs: Lai Mohra 277
v
Reassessment of the Da’wa and Latter Day contributions: the monument
of Sultan Ali Akbar 282
Pir Adil 293
Conclusion 297
Glossary 308
Bibliography 311
Appendices
Appendix One 323
Appendix Two 324
Appendix Three 324
Appendix Four 325
vi
List of Illustrations
1. The Middle East in 970-page 10.
2. The Ghaznavid Empire after absorption of the Buwayhids of Rayy on Mahmud’s death in 1030-page 1
3. The Seljuk Empire upon the death of Malik Shah in 1092-page 20.
4. The Ghorids in 1200-page 21.
5. Shrine of Umar al-Suhrawardi, Iraq-page 27.
6. Fakhr al-din Iraqi arriving in Multan with a caravan of qalandars-page 41.
7. Zakariya’s letter nominating Shahbaz Qalandar to the Suhrawardi Order-page 43.
8. Diagram of the Suhrawardi Order stemming from Iraq into the subcontinent-page 44.
9. Suhrawardi Shaykhs at Multan-page 57.
10. Site of Shams’s miracle in the village of Suraj Kund-page 71.
11. Shams’s passage from Uch to Sitpur through the Panjnad, then onto Multan-page 73.
12. The boat taziya in the Gilani quarter-page 76.
13. The Bukhari taziya-page 77.
14. The Bukhari taziya in the streets of the old city-page 78.
15. The Bukhari taziya with Ali’s image on the mast-page 79.
16. The astrological chart of event of Ghadir Khumm-page 86.
17. The route from Multan to Saklii Sarwar-page 90.
18. Lineal plaque of Saklii Sarwar-page 91.
19. The four different dimensions of wilayat-page 125.
20. The astrological chart of 18 Dhul Hajj, 10 Hijri/14 March 632-page 134.
21. The astrological chart of the Ghadir-Khumm related Nauroz-page 137.
22. Planetary exaltations according to Al-Beruni-page 137.
23. The Arabic abjad according to Al-Beruni-page 143.
24. The planetary day and night hours according to Al-Beruni-page 143.
25. Planetaiy consonants-page 144.
26. A hexagram talisman of the Nad-e-Ali-page 145.
27. The Rukn-e-Alam mihrab compared with the Seal of Solomon-page 152.
28. The Rukn-e-Alam mihrab frame with its Ayat al~ Kursi detail-page 153.
29. Bibi Jaiwandi pentagram site plan compared with its old tile carrying the Mars symbol- page 156.
30. The seven talismanic symbols in the Seal of Solomon-page 156.
31. Islamic astrological chart for use in alchemy-page 157.
32. A comparison of the Bibi Jaiwandi complex icons-page 158,
33. Lai Mohra Tomb B & Tomb D-page 159.
34. Omar Khayyam’s Rub a ’yi on Nauroz-page 161.
35. The astrological chart of Easter Sunday, 9 April 34 A.D-page 163.