Table Of ContentShaping and Signaling Presidential Policy
Number Two:
Joseph V. Hughes, Jr., and Holly O. Hughes
Series in the Presidency
and Leadership Studies
general editor
James P. P޴ner
series editorial board
Peri Arnold
H.W. Brands, Jr.
George C. Edwards III
Fred I. Greenstein
Erwin C. Hargrove
Charles O. Jones
Martha Joynt Kumar
Roger Porter
Stephen J. Wayne
Meena Bose
Shaping and
Signaling
Presidential Policy
The National Security
Decision Making of
Eisenhower and Kennedy
Texas A&M University Press
College Station
Copyright © 1998 by Meenekshi Bose
Manufactured in the United States ofAmerica
All rights reserved
First edition
A version ofchapter 3 appeared as
“Words as Signals: Drafting Cold War Rhetoric
in the Eisenhower and Kennedy Administrations”
in Congress and the Presidency:
A Journal ofCapital Studies25, no. 1
(Spring, 1998): 23–41
The paper used in this book
meets the minimum requirements
ofthe American National Standard
for Permanence ofPaper
for Printed Library Materials,
Z39.48-1984.
Binding materials
have been chosen for durability.
Bose, Meena, 1970–
MMShaping and signaling presidential policy : the national
security decision making ofEisenhower and Kennedy / Meena
Bose. — 1st ed.
MMMp.MMcm. — (Joseph V. Hughes Jr. and Holly O. Hughes
series in the presidency and leadership studies ; no. 2)
MMRevised version ofthe author’s Ph. D. dissertation
(Princeton), 1996.
MMIncludes bibliographical references and index.
MMisbn0-89096-833-0 (alk. paper)
MM1. United States—Politics and government—1953–1961.
2. United States—Politics and government—1961–1963.
3. Presidents—United States—Decision making—Case studies.
4. Eisenhower, Dwight D. (Dwight David), 1890–1969.
5. Kennedy, John F. (John Fitzgerald), 1917–1963. 6. National
security—United States—History—20th century. I. Title.
II. Series.
ME835.B64 1998
320.973'09045—dc21 98-21374
CIP4
Winner ofthe Best Dissertation on the Presidency Prize
Sponsored by the Center for Presidential Studies
George Bush School ofGovernment and Public Service
Texas A&M University
Texas A&M University Press expresses appreciation
for the Center’s cooperation in publishing books
on the presidency and leadership.
For my family
Nirmal K. and Chandra Bose
Enakshi Bose
Colin Churchill Barr
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction. Studying Presidential Policy Making
and Policy Communication 3
part one
Policy Making in the Eisenhower
and Kennedy Administrations
1. Developing the New Look 19
2. Developing Flexible Response 42
part two
Policy Communication in the Eisenhower
and Kennedy Administrations
3. The Initial Cold War Rhetoric
of Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy 65
4. Communicating the Developing Strategies 79
Conclusion. Reflections on Presidential
Decision Making 99
appendix a.
U.S. Defense Budget, 1947–1964 113
appendix b.
Selected Speeches from the Eisenhower
and Kennedy Administrations 115
Notes 157
Bibliography 183
Index 193
Acknowledgments
So many people have helped me in producing this book that it is hard to
know where to begin.
I cannot express enough thanks to my dissertation advisers, who en-
thusiastically encouraged this project from the beginning and provided
just the right combination of support and pressure to make me finish it.
Fred Greenstein read countless drafts, pored over the prose, and firmly im-
pressedupon me the importance ofclear, concise writing. A graduate stu-
dentcould not have had a more dedicated adviser. John DiIulio forced me
to think about the tough questions involved in generalizing from my cases
and the possibilities for sharing my conclusions beyond an academic au-
dience. His own ability to move between the academic and policy worlds
will always be a model for me. Aaron Friedberg helped me to see how my
research could be of interest to students of American politics and inter-
national relations, and his advice and cheerful pep talks were always ap-
preciated. I hope all of my advisers will find that the final product was
worth their e¥ort.
A number of people have helped me in transforming the dissertation
into a book. James P. P޴ner, Karen Hult, and Robert Ivie boosted my spir-
its immeasurably by selecting the study for the best dissertation on the
American presidency award from the Center for Presidential Studies at
Texas A&M University. George C. Edwards, III, invited me to Texas A&M
to talk about my work, which spurred me to make necessary revisions. Of
the many others who have read and commented upon the manuscript, I
particularly would like to thank John P. Burke, Alexander L. George, and
Richard H. Immerman for their sound and detailed advice.
The funding I received to support my research and writing was indis-
pensable to my ability to conduct this study. I am grateful to a number of
sources at Princeton University for their assistance, and I also appreciate
the support ofthe Eisenhower World A¥airs Institute, the John F. Kennedy
Foundation, the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, the Brookings In-
stitution’s Center for Public Management, and the College of Liberal Arts
ix
x Acknowledgments
and Sciences at Hofstra University. The Department ofPolitical Science at
Hofstra University has provided a wonderful home for teaching and re-
search in the past two years, and I thank my colleagues for their support.
Archival and interview-based research is a daunting task, and I am
grateful to the people who made it all manageable. David Haight of the
Dwight D. Eisenhower Library invested much time and e¥ort in my pro-
ject during my trip there, and he has answered countless follow-up ques-
tions ever since. During my visits to the John F. Kennedy Library, William
Johnson, Suzanne Forbes, Megan Desnoyers, Maura Porter, and June Payne
all provided friendly assistance. Through their cheerful help, the sta¥ of
Seeley G. Mudd Library at Princeton—particularly Ben Primer, Dan Linke,
and Nanci Young—make that library an especially hospitable place for re-
searchers. I am particularly grateful to the former oƒcials of the Eisen-
hower and Kennedy administrations who took the time to talk with me
about my work and o¥er their insights, even when they did not agree with
my analysis.
Final thanks I must reserve for my family. My father showed me the
joys of an academic career, and his dedication to his work and personal in-
tegrity will always guide me in my own endeavors. My mother instilled in
me from childhood a love ofhistory and biography, and her interest in the
American political system inspired mine. My sister’s frequent phone calls
and visits provided welcome and much-needed breaks from work, which I
hope will continue in my next project. Most of all I thank Colin Churchill
Barr, for his infinite patience in reading, commenting on, and discussing
this project—and, more importantly, for the walks through Manhattan, for
the Knicks games, and for much, much more.
