Shale: Subsurface Science and Engineering (Geophysical Monograph Series)

300 Pages·2019·13.259 MB·English

by  Thomas Dewers, Jason Heath, Marcelo Sánchez

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Geophysical Monograph 245
Shale
Subsurface Science and
Engineering
Thomas Dewers
Jason Heath
Marcelo Sánchez
Editors
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Contents
Contributors ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������vii
Preface �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
Acknowledgments �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xi
Part I: Shale and Clay Overview
1. Mudrock Components and the Genesis of Bulk Rock Properties: Review of Current Advances
and Challenges
Kitty L. Milliken and Nicholas W. Hayman �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
2. Chemical Composition of Formation Water in Shale and Tight Reservoirs: A Basin‐Scale Perspective
Yousif Kharaka, Kathleen Gans, Elisabeth Rowan, James Thordsen, Christopher Conaway, Madalyn
Blondes, and Mark Engle ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
3. From Nanofluidics to Basin‐Scale Flow in Shale: Tracer Investigations
Yifeng Wang �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
4. Metals in Oil and Gas‐Bearing Shales: Are They Potential (Future) Ore Deposits?
Mark J. Rigali and James L. Krumhansl �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
5. Coupled Thermal–Hydraulic–Mechanical and Chemical Modeling of Clayed Rocks
Leonardo do N. Guimarães, Antonio Gens, and Marcelo Sánchez �����������������������������������������������������������������69
6. Thermo‐Hydro‐Mechanical Testing of Shales
Alessio Ferrari and Enrique Romero Morales �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������83
7. Geomechanics of Shale Repositories: Mechanical Behavior and Modeling
Miguel A. Mánica, Daniel F. Ruiz, Jean Vaunat, and Antonio Gens �����������������������������������������������������������������99
8. Generation and Self‐Sealing of the Excavation‐Damaged Zone (EDZ) Around a Subsurface Excavation
in a Claystone
Paul Bossart, Christophe Nussbaum, and Kristof Schuster ���������������������������������������������������������������������������125
9. Shale and Wellbore Integrity
J. William Carey and Malin Torsæter ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
Part II: Unconventional Oil and Gas
10. Characterization of Unconventional Resource Shales (Mudstones): The Necessity of Multiscale
Scientific Integration
Roger M. Slatt ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������163
11. Wellbore Mechanics and Stability in Shale
Amin Mehrabian, Vinh X. Nguyen, and Younane N. Abousleiman ���������������������������������������������������������������197
12. Modeling Hydraulic Fracturing of Unconventional Reservoirs
Ahmad Ghassemi and Zhennan Zhang �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������213
v
vi Contents
13. Flow of Gas and Liquid in Natural Media Containing Nanoporous Regions
Timothy J. Kneafsey and Sharon Borglin ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
14. Factors Affecting Hydrocarbon and Water Mobility in Shales
Charles Bryan and Pat Brady ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������255
15. Dynamics of Matrix‐Fracture Coupling During Shale Gas Production
I. Yucel Akkutlu and Asana Wasaki �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������273
Index ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������287
Contributors
Younane N. Abousleiman Mark Engle
Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological United States Geological Survey
Engineering Reston, VA, USA;
School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science Department of Geological Sciences
ConocoPhillips School of Geology and Geophysics University of Texas at El Paso
PoroMechanics Institute El Paso, TX, USA
The University of Oklahoma
Norman, OK, USA Alessio Ferrari
Laboratory for Soil Mechanics (LMS)
I. Yucel Akkutlu
School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Engineering (ENAC)
Texas A&M University
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
College Station, TX, USA
Lausanne, Switzerland
Madalyn Blondes
Kathleen Gans
United States Geological Survey
United States Geological Survey
Reston, VA, USA
Menlo Park, CA, USA
Sharon Borglin
Earth and Environmental Sciences Antonio Gens
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Berkeley, CA, USA Technical University of Catalonia
Barcelona, Spain
Paul Bossart
Federal Office of Topography Ahmad Ghassemi
Swiss Geological Survey at Swisstopo Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological
Bossart, Switzerland Engineering
The University of Oklahoma
Pat Brady Norman, OK, USA
Nuclear Energy Fuel Cycle Programs
Sandia National Laboratories
Leonardo do N. Guimarães
Albuquerque, NM, USA
Department of Civil Engineering and Environmental
Engineering
Charles Bryan
Federal University of Pernambuco
Storage and Transportation Technology
Recife, Brazil
Nuclear Energy Fuel Cycle Programs
Sandia National Laboratories
Nicholas W. Hayman
Albuquerque, NM, USA
John A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of
Geosciences
J. William Carey
Institute for Geophysics
Earth and Environmental Sciences Division
The University of Texas at Austin
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Austin, TX, USA
Los Alamos, NM, USA
Christopher Conaway Yousif Kharaka
United States Geological Survey United States Geological Survey
Menlo Park, CA, USA Menlo Park, CA, USA
vii
viii Contributors
Timothy J. Kneafsey Marcelo Sánchez
Earth and Environmental Sciences Zachry Department of Civil Engineering
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Texas A&M University
Berkeley, CA, USA College Station, TX, USA
James L. Krumhansl Kristof Schuster
813 Solano Drive NE Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural
Albuquerque, NM, USA Resources (BGR)
Hannover, Germany
Miguel A. Mánica
Instituto de Ingeniería Roger M. Slatt
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México School of Geosciences
Cuidad de México, México Institute of Reservoir Characterization
The University of Oklahoma
Amin Mehrabian Norman, OK, USA
John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy
and Mineral Engineering James Thordsen
Earth and Mineral Sciences Energy Institute United States Geological Survey
The Pennsylvania State University Menlo Park, CA, USA
University Park, PA, USA
Malin Torsæter
Kitty L. Milliken
Department of Petroleum
Bureau of Economic Geology
SINTEF Industry
The University of Texas at Austin
Trondheim, Norway
Austin, TX, USA
Jean Vaunat
Vinh X. Nguyen
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
PVEP POC
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC) ‐
Ho Chi Minh City, S.R. Vietnam
BarcelonaTech
Barcelona, Spain
Christophe Nussbaum
Federal Office of Topography
Yifeng Wang
Swiss Geological Survey at Swisstopo
Nuclear Waste Disposal Research and Analysis
Wabern, Switzerland
Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, NM, USA
Mark J. Rigali
Applied Systems Analysis and Research
Asana Wasaki
Sandia National Laboratories
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Albuquerque, NM, USA
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX, USA;
Enrique Romero Morales
Japan Petroleum Exploration Co., Ltd. (JAPEX)
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Tokyo, Japan
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC) ‐
BarcelonaTech
Zhennan Zhang
Barcelona, Spain
School of Naval Architecture
Elisabeth Rowan Ocean and Civil Engineering
United States Geological Survey Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Reston, VA, USA Shanghai, China
Daniel F. Ruiz
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC) -
BarcelonaTech
Barcelona, Spain
Preface
The timing has never been more opportune for a sum- perspectives, but key to regulatory and public acceptance
mary treatise on the subsurface science and engineering of large‐scale CO storage.
2
of shale; this is suggested by several factors. The rise of 3. The uncertainty of Yucca Mountain as the geologic
shale oil and gas is predicted by some to enable energy repository for United States domestic nuclear waste has
independence and export in the United States in the led to a reconsideration of shale formations as such in the
coming decades. Consequently, the now‐common “shale” United States. The recognition that shale formation pore‐
brings to mind a reinvigorated fossil‐fuel energy economy, water overpressure, resulting from ice sheet compression,
to others a means to transition from coal to renewable has persisted at least for 10,000 years is strong evidence for
resources via cleaner natural gas, and to still others “frack- the sealing potential for these rock types on repository‐
ing” across the landscape, threatening the environmental requisite time scales. Shales are the dominant lithology
quality of water and air. At the basic science level, new considered for many proposed European repositories.
imaging techniques, including dual focused ion beam‐ 4. Shales are under renewed scrutiny as hosts for light
scanning electron and neutron scattering methods, have and heavy rare‐earth elements. These are in high demand
emerged in the last decade that allow unprecedented for aerospace and electronics industries and there is
internal three‐dimensional views into shale pore network growing concern of a worldwide shortage. A newly
topologies and pore lining phases at previously unobtain- released study by the United States Geological Survey
able length scales (i.e., nanometers). Shales have always suggests that United States reserves in predominately
been considered as a major sealing lithology and source for shale formations are larger than previously thought, with
oil and gas reservoirs. Inasmuch as these seals already potential geopolitical consequences.
existed for trapping hydrocarbons, and hydrocarbon gener- Fundamental understanding for successful subsurface
ation and migration was mostly ancient history, interest in science and engineering of shale is however lacking.
shale specifically as an engineering target was never a pri- There is no consensus as to factors underlying the
ority for the oil and gas industry. Industry was always more observed rapid decline in gas production in shale gas
concerned with conventional sandstone and carbonate res- fields. Movement of CO plumes in the subsurface
2
ervoirs that lie beneath the shales, and the shale formations through mudstone caprocks has not followed model pre-
themselves were mostly viewed as problematic from a dril- diction. Current coupled hydro‐thermo‐mechanical
ling perspective and handled on a field‐by‐field basis. models struggle to describe large‐scale tests in mudstone
Recent occurrences have renewed interest in shale sci- formations in European underground laboratories.
ence and engineering: Essentially, the response of anisotropic heterogeneous
1. While shales were long‐known reservoirs for oil and shale/mudstone lithologies to engineered three‐dimensional
gas, and so‐called hydrofracking was viable technology thermal, fluid flow, and stress perturbations are not
for reservoir stimulation since the 1950s, advances in currently quantifiable to a degree where prediction is
horizontal drilling together with fracking made extrac- viable. These important sedimentary rocks have grain
tion of oil and gas from shales economically viable, hence sizes on the order of microns (1 mm contains a 1000 μm)
the shale gas “revolution.” The last 5 years have seen and pore sizes from microns to nanometers (1 μm contains
unbounded growth in the study of gas shales in China. a 1000 nm) and contain organic material and abundant
2. Recent recognition of saline formations as a large clay minerals, which possess unique properties of shrink‐
potential reservoir for secure carbon sequestration brings swell, large surface area for sorption, and intergranular
the need for secure storage, and hence “caprocks” as water and exchangeable cations. Shales exert a profound
sealing formations. Inasmuch as most saline formations influence on groundwater hydrology and are the source
are clastic reservoirs composed of sandstones, deposi- rock, trap, and reservoir for shale oil and gas. Use of
tional predisposition led to shales as the dominant pro- shales for both resource and storage purposes in a sus-
posed caprock lithology. The question of storage security, tainable and efficient manner requires mastery of many
and caprock integrity, for geologic carbon storage, is aspects unique to shale as opposed to other rock types,
largely a question of shale performance assessment. such as fluid flow and transport through complex, multi-
Natural and induced fractures in caprock as potential scale pore and fracture networks.
leakage pathways is a difficult research topic from field, In this volume, we bring together a series of chapters
laboratory, and multiphysics reactive transport modeling from recognized experts from industry, academia, private
ix