Table Of ContentSHALE OIL
AND GAS
PRODUCTION
PROCESSES
J S
AMES PEIGHT
CD&WInc. Laramie,WY,UnitedStates
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About the author
Dr. James G. Speight has doctorate degrees in Chemistry, Geological Sciences, and
Petroleum Engineering. He is the author of more than 80 books in petroleum science, fossil
fuel science, petroleum engineering, environmental sciences, and ethics.
He has more than fifty years of experience in areas associated with (i) the properties,
recovery,andrefiningofreservoirfluids,conventionalpetroleum,heavyoil,extraheavyoil,
tar sand bitumen, and oil shale, (ii) the properties and refining of natural gas, gaseous fuels,
(iii) the production and properties of chemicals from crude oil, coal, and other sources,
(iv)thepropertiesandrefiningofbiomass,biofuels,biogas,andthegenerationofbioenergy,
and (v) the environmental and toxicological effects of energy production and fuels use. His
work has also focused on safety issues, environmental effects, environmental remediation,
and safety issues as well as reactors associated with the production and use of fuels and
biofuels.
Although he has always worked in private industry with emphasis on contract-based
work leading to commercialization of concepts, Dr. Speight was (among other appoint-
ments)aVisitingProfessorintheCollegeofScience,UniversityofMosul(Iraq)andhasalso
been a Visiting Professor in Chemical Engineering at the Technical University of Denmark,
(Lyngby, Denmark) and the University of Trinidad and Tobago (Point Lisas, Trinidad).
In 1996, Dr. Speight was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences and awarded the
Academy’sGoldMedalofHonorthatsameyearforoutstandingcontributionstothefieldof
petroleumsciences.In2001,hereceivedtheScientistswithoutBordersMedalofHonorofthe
Russian Academy of Sciences and was also awarded the Einstein Medal for outstanding
contributions and service in the field of Geological Sciences. In 2005, the Academy awarded
Dr. Speight the Gold Medal e Scientists without Frontiers, Russian Academy of Sciences, in
recognition of Continuous Encouragement of Scientists to Work Together Across Interna-
tional Borders. In 2007 Dr. Speight received the Methanex Distinguished Professor award at
the University of Trinidad and Tobago in recognition of excellence in research. In 2018, he
received the American Excellence Award for Excellence in Client Solutions from the United
States Institute of Trade and Commerce, Washington, DC.
ix
Preface
Natural gas and crude oil production ability of the current regulatory structure to
from hydrocarbon rich deep tight shale for- deal with these issues.
mations, known as tight gas and tight oil Natural gas and crude oil from tight for-
(alsoreferredtoasshalegasand,incorrectly, mation such as shale, tight sandstone, and
as shale oil) is one of the most quickly carbonate formations are is considered as
expanding trends in onshore domestic unconventional fossil fuels since the gas or
exploration for crude oil and natural gas. In oil may be attached to or adsorbed on to
some cases, this has included bringing dril- organicmatter.Thegasandoilarecontained
lingandproductiontoregionsofthecountry indifficult-to-producereservoirseshaleisa
thathaveseenlittleornoactivityinthepast. rockthatcanholdhugeamountofgasoroil,
Vastnewnaturalgasandoilresourcesare not only in the zones between the particles,
being discovered every year across North butsomeoftheparticlesareorganicthatlike
America e drilling activity is at a 25-year sponges also contain hold gas and oil. Thus,
high and supplies are rapidly growing. One evaluation of the potential of sedimentary
major source of these resources comes from basins for gas and oil production has now
the development of deep shale formations, become an important area of development
typically located many thousands of feet internationally and is of great national in-
below the surface of the Earth in tight, low terest as these resources will have direct
permeability formations. Recent technolog- positive impact on energy security of many
ical advancements in horizontal drilling and countries which have sizeable resources in
hydraulic fracturing are unlocking an abun- sedimentary basins. However, it will be
danceofdeepshalenaturalgasandoilinthe appreciated that the reserves estimations are
United States. However, the issues of tight not static and are changing annually based
gas and tight oil recovery relate to the dif- upon new discoveries and improvement in
ferences in shale plays. drilling and recovery techniques.
Natural gas and crude oil from tight for- The global increasing significance of gas
mations has not only changed the energy and oil from tight formations has led to the
distributionintheUnitedStatesasaresultof need for deeper understanding of shale
thisnew-foundpopularity,butdevelopment behavior. Increased understanding of the
of these resources also brings change to the tight formations will provide a better deci-
environmental and socio-economic land- sion regarding the development of these
scape, particularly in those areas where resources. To find these reserves may be
development is new. With these changes relativelyeasybutthetechnologytoproduce
have come questions about the nature of the the natural gas and the crude oil is very
development of these resources including expensive. The technique to drill straight
the potential environmental impacts and the through the gas-bearing or oil-bearing rock
xi
xii
PREFACE
gives very little exposure to rock for the gas heteroatoms (nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur as
andoiltoescape.Hydraulicfracturingisthe well as metal constituents) offer several dif-
only way to increase exposure for successful ficulties that refiners must face if they are to
production rate of the gas and the oil. include shale oil as part of the refinery feed-
On the other hand, oil shale is a fine- stocks. In addition, the incompatibility of
grained sedimentary rock containing organic shale oil with typical petroleum feedstocks
matter(commonlycalledkerogen)thatyields mayalsobeanissue.However,dependingon
substantial amounts of oil and combustible the nature of the upgrading techniques
gasupondestructivedistillationandinmany applied, shale oil can be a premium-quality
partsoftheworld.Mostoftheorganicmatter refinery feedstock, comparable and compat-
is insoluble in ordinary organic solvents; ible with the best grades of conventional
therefore, it must be decomposed by heating crude oil. In fact, shale oil is considered by
to release such materials. Underlying most some scientific and engineering authorities a
definitions of oil shale is its potential for the better source of jet fuel, diesel fuel, and
economicrecoveryofenergy,includingshale distillate heating oil than it is of gasoline.
oil and combustiblegas, aswell asa number Although some technical questions remain,
of byproducts. A deposit of oil shale having the upgrading and refining processes are
economic potential is generally one that is at well-advanced for the production of pre-
ornearenoughtothesurfacetobedeveloped mium products.
by open-pit or conventional underground Thus, the objective of this book is to pre-
mining or by in-situ methods. The properties sentanintroductiontonaturalgasandcrude
of shale oil (kerogen-derived oil) vary with oil resources in tight formations as well as
the sources and the process by which the offeranunderstandingofthegeomechanical
shaleoilisproduced.Thus,shaleoilcanbea properties of such formations and the need
difficult feedstock to processes in refinery for hydraulic fracturing. The book also in-
operations.Varyingquantitiesofheteroatoms troduces the reader to issues regarding the
(nitrogen,oxygen,andsulfuraswellasmetal nature of natural gas and crude oil devel-
constituents) offer several difficulties that re- opment in tight formations, the potential
finersmustfaceiftheyaretoincludeshaleoil environmentalimpacts,andtheabilityofthe
aspartoftherefineryfeedstocks.Inaddition, current regulatory structure to deal with
the incompatibility of shale oil with typical these issues. The book also serves to intro-
petroleum feedstocks may also be an issue. duce scientists, engineers, managers, regu-
Oilshaledepositsareinmanypartsofthe lators, policy makers to objective sources of
world. They range in age from Cambrian to information upon which to make decisions
Tertiary and were formed in a variety of about meeting and managing the challenges
marine, continental, and lacustrine deposi- that may accompany.
tional environments. The largest known de- Thisbookpresents(i)gasandoilpotential
posit is in the Green River Formation in the from tight formations, (ii) the evolution of
western United States with the potential to shale plays, (iii) exploitation through dis-
produceapproximately1.5trillionUSbarrels covery,drillingandreservoirevaluation,(iv)
(1.5 (cid:1) 1012 US bbls) of shale oil. production, and (v) the efficiency of these
The properties of shale oil vary with the completion operations. This book also deals
sourcesandtheprocessbywhichtheshaleoil with the production of shale oil (kerogen-
is produced. Thus, shale oil can be a difficult derived oil) from oil shale and transports
feedstock to processes. Varying quantities of the reader through the various aspects of
xiii
PREFACE
production with chapters that deal with makers to objective sources of information
(i) origin and properties of oil shale, (ii) oil uponwhichtomakedecisionsaboutmeeting
shale resources by country, (iii) the chemical and managing the challenges that may
and physical nature of kerogen, the precur- accompany development of these resources.
sor to oil shale, (iv) mining and retorting oil A descriptive Glossary is also included.
shale, (v) in situ retorting, and (vi) shale oil Dr. James G. Speight
refining. The environmental aspects of the CD&W Inc.,
development of natural gas and crude oil Laramie,
from tight formations are also presented. Wyoming, United States
The book also serves to introduce scien-
tists, engineers, managers, regulators, policy
C H A P T E R
1
Gas and oil in tight formations
1. Introduction
The generic terms crude oil (also referred to as petroleum) and natural gas and apply to the
mixture of liquids and gases, respectively, commonly associated with petroliferous (crude
oil-producing, crude oil-containing) geologic formations (Speight, 2014a) and which has
been extended to gases and liquids from the recently developed deep shale formations
(Speight, 2013b).However,inadditiontothenaturalgasfoundincrudeoilreservoirs,there
arealsothosereservoirsinwhichnaturalgasmaybethesoleoccupant.Theprincipalconstit-
uent of natural gas is methane, but other hydrocarbon derivatives, such as ethane, propane,
andbutane,mayalsobepresent.Carbondioxideisalsoacommonconstituentofnaturalgas.
Trace amounts of rare gases, such as helium, may also occur, and certain natural gas reser-
voirsareasourceoftheseraregases.Justascrudeoilcanvaryincomposition,socannatural
gas.Differencesinnaturalgascompositionoccurbetweendifferentreservoirs,andtwowells
inthesamefieldmayalsoyieldgaseousproductsthataredifferentincomposition(Mokhatab
et al., 2006; Speight, 2014a, 2019).
Crude oil and natural gas are the most important raw materials consumed in modern
society e they provide raw materials for the ubiquitous plastics and other products as
well as fuels for energy, industry, heating, and transportation. From a chemical standpoint,
natural gas and crude oil are a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and non-hydrocarbon
compounds with crude oil being much more complex than natural gas (Speight, 2012a,
2014a, 2019). The fuels that are derived from these two natural products supply more than
halfofthetotalsupplyofworldenergy.Gas(forgasburnersandforthemanufactureofpet-
rochemicals),gasoline,kerosene,anddieseloilprovidefuelforautomobiles,tractors,trucks,
aircraft, and ships (Speight, 2014a). In addition, fuel oil and natural gas are used to heat
homes and commercial buildings, as well as to generate electricity.
Natural gasandcrudeoilarecarbon-basedresourcesand,therefore,thegeochemicalcar-
bon cycle is also of interest to fossil fuel usage in terms of crude oil formation, use, and the
buildupofatmosphericcarbondioxide.Thus,themoreefficientuseofnaturalgasandcrude
oil is of paramount importance and the technology involved in processing both feedstocks
willsupplytheindustrializednationsoftheworldfor(atleast)thenextfiftyyearsuntilsuit-
able alternative forms of energy are readily available (Boyle, 1996; Ramage, 1997; Speight,
2011a, 2011b, 2011c).
ShaleOilandGasProductionProcesses
3
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813315-6.00001-4 ©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
4
1. Gasandoilintightformations
Inthiscontext,itisrelevanttointroducethetermpeakoilwhichreferstothemaximumrate
ofoilproduction,afterwhichtherateofproductionofthisnaturalresources(infacttherate
of production of any natural resource) enters a terminal decline (Hubbert, 1956, 1962). Peak
oilproductionusuallyoccursafterapproximatelyhalfoftherecoverableoilinanoilreserve
has been produced (i.e., extracted). Peaking means that the rate of world oil production
cannot increase, and that oil production will thereafter decrease with time; even if the
demand for oil remains the same or increases. Following from this, the term peak energy is
the point in time after which energy production declines and the production of energy
from various energy sources is in decline. In fact, most oil-producing countries e including
Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Norway, and the United States e have passed the peak
crude oil production apex several years or decades ago. Their production declines have
been offset by discoveries and production growth elsewhere in the world and the so-called
peak energy precipice will be delayed by such discoveries as well as by further development
orcrudeoilandnaturalgasresourcesthatareheldintightformationsandtightshaleforma-
tions (Islam and Speight, 2016).
However, before progressing any further, a series of definitions are used to explain the
terminology used in this book.
2. Definitions
Thedefinitionsofcrudeoilandnaturalgashavebeenvariedanddiverseandaretheprod-
uctofmanyyearsofthegrowthofthecrudeoilandnaturalgasprocessingindustries.Ofthe
many forms of the definitions that have been used not all have survived but the more com-
mon, as illustrated here, are used in this book. Also included for comparison are sources of
gasesuchasgashydratesandothersourcesofgas-thatwillpresentanindicationoffuture
sources of gaseous energy.
2.1 Crude oil
The term crude oil covers a wide assortment of naturally-occurring hydrocarbon-type liq-
uids consisting of mixtures of hydrocarbon derivatives and non-hydrocarbon compounds
containing variable amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen as well as heavy metals such
as nickel and vanadium, which may vary widely in volatility, specific gravity, and viscosity
alongwithvaryingphysicalpropertiessuchasAPIgravityandsulfurcontent(Tables1.1and
1.2)aswellasbeingaccompaniedbyvariationsincolorthatrangesfromcolorlesstoblacke
the lower API gravity crude oils are darker than the higher API gravity crude oils (Speight,
2012a, 2014a; US EIA, 2014). The metal-containing constituents, notably those compounds
consisting of derivatives of vanadium and nickel with, on occasion iron and copper, usually
occurinthemoreviscouscrudeoilsinamountsuptoseveralthousandpartspermillionand
can have serious consequences for the equipment and catalysts used in processing of these
feedstocks (Parkash, 2003; Gary et al., 2007; Speight, 2014a, 2017; Hsu and Robinson,
2017). The presence of iron and copper has been subject to much speculation insofar as it
is not clear if these two metals are naturally occurring in the crude oil or whether they are
absorbed by the crude oil during recovery and transportation in metals pipelines.
I. Gasandoilfromtightshale
5
2. Definitions
TABLE1.1 Selectedcrudeoilsshowingthedifferences inAPIgravity andsulfurcontent.
Country Crudeoil API Sulfur%w/w
AbuDhabi(UAE) AbuAlBuKhoosh 31.6 2.00
AbuDhabi(UAE) Murban 40.5 0.78
Angola Cabinda 31.7 0.17
Angola Palanca 40.1 0.11
Australia BarrowIsland 37.3 0.05
Australia Griffin 55.0 0.03
Brazil Garoupa 30.0 0.68
Brazil SergipanoPlatforma 38.4 0.19
Brunei ChampionExport 23.9 0.12
Brunei Seria 40.5 0.06
Cameroon Lokele 20.7 0.46
Cameroon KoleMarine 32.6 0.33
Canada(Alberta) Wainwright-Kinsella 23.1 2.58
Canada(Alberta) Rainbow 40.7 0.50
China Shengli 24.2 1.00
China NanhaiLight 40.6 0.06
Dubai(UAE) Fateh 31.1 2.00
Dubai(UAE) MarghamLight 50.3 0.04
Egypt RasGharib 21.5 3.64
Egypt GulfofSuez 31.9 1.52
Gabon Gamba 31.4 0.09
Gabon Rabi-Kounga 33.5 0.07
Indonesia Bima 21.1 0.25
Indonesia Kakap 51.5 0.05
Iran Aboozar(Ardeshir) 26.9 2.48
Iran Rostam 35.9 1.55
Iraq BasrahHeavy 24.7 3.50
Iraq BasrahLight 33.7 1.95
Libya Buri 26.2 1.76
Libya BuAttifel 43.3 0.04
Malaysia Bintulu 28.1 0.08
Malaysia Dulang 39.0 0.12
(Continued)
I. Gasandoilfromtightshale
