Table Of ContentSpringerBriefs in Earth Sciences
Mehdi Zeidouni
Shale Hydrocarbon
Recovery
Basic Concepts and
Reserve Estimation
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Mehdi Zeidouni
Shale Hydrocarbon Recovery
Basic Concepts and Reserve Estimation
MehdiZeidouni
DepartmentofPetroleumEngineering
LouisianaStateUniversity
BatonRouge,LA,USA
ISSN2191-5369 ISSN2191-5377 (electronic)
SpringerBriefsinEarthSciences
ISBN978-3-031-23558-0 ISBN978-3-031-23559-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23559-7
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Preface
Understanding the challenges specific to shale hydrocarbon recovery and the prac-
ticestoovercomethesechallengesisthemainfocusofthisbook.Inthefirstchapter,
technologicalevolutionsthatledtosuccessfulproductionfromshaleplays,andthe
implications of the shale being a source rock for its hydrocarbon recovery are
covered. The characteristics differentiating shale resources and determining play
qualityarealsopresentedinChap.1.Thesecondchapterpresentstheoperationsof
well drilling, hydraulic fracturing, and monitoring activities. Shale hydrocarbon
reserve estimation methods are covered in Chaps. 3 and 4. Chapter 3 provides an
overviewoftheavailablemethodsforreserveestimationofshaleresourcesfollowed
by comprehensive coverage of decline curve analysis (DCA). The covered DCA
methodsincludeArps’(exponential,hyperbolic,andharmonic),Stretchedexponen-
tial, Power law exponential, Duong, and Logistic growth. In departure from the
mostly empirical rate-time DCA methods covered in Chap. 3, advanced rate-time-
pressure analysis—often referred to as rate transient analysis (RTA)—methods are
presentedinChap.4.TheconventionalRTAmethodsareextendedtoshalewellsby
introducing analysis approaches of transient linear flow, transitional flow, and
stimulated-reservoir-volume (SRV) flow. Chapter 4 ends with a discussion on the
complications of fluid flow in shale reservoirs and the required modelling
improvements.
ThisbookstemmedfromteachingacourseonShaleReservoirEngineeringand
Evaluation PETE 4190 that the author annually taught at the Craft & Hawkins
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Louisiana State University since Fall 2017.
PETE 4190 also included additional contents—on the design and execution of
hydraulic fracturing and its effect on well productivity—which are not covered in
this book. The available literature on hydraulic fracturing stimulation were used to
coverthosematerials.Thetargetaudienceofthisbookincludepetroleumengineers
and non-petroleum engineers interested in understanding the basic concepts of
hydrocarbonrecoveryfromshalereservoirs.
Anotethateachchapterincludesquestions(true/false,shortanswer,ormultiple
choice) to help the reader better engage in the learning of the presented material.
v
vi Preface
Somequestionsarealsoaimedatcompletingthelearningprocessandmaypresent
newinformation (notcovered priortotheraisedquestion).Therefore,thereaderis
encouragedtoanswereveryquestionasitispresented.Theanswerstoquestionsare
givenattheendofeachchapter.
BatonRouge,LA,USA MehdiZeidouni
Contents
1De finitions,History,andDifferentiatingCharacteristicsofShale
HydrocarbonRecovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 “Shale”Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 ABriefHistory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 OriginofOilandGas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 SourceRockVersusReservoirRock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Drilling,Completion,andMonitoringOperations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Drilling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Completion(Multi-fracturingofHorizontalWells). . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 RequiredEquipment,Fluids,andProppant. . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 MonitoringandNear-WellboreDiagnostic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 ExpectedTemperature,Strain,andAcousticSignals. . . . . 21
2.3.2 Frac-HitIdentification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.3 FractureGeometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 StageIsolation.. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . 24
2.3.5 SlurryAllocationandFractureInitiationPoints(FIPs). . . . 25
2.3.6 ProductionProfiling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.7 OtherTypesofData. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 ReserveEstimationThroughRate-TimeAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 ResourcesandReserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 HydraulicFracturingEffectonWellProductivityandReserves. . . 31
3.3 Arps’DCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.1 Arps’ExponentialDCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.2 Arps’HyperbolicandHarmonicDCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 StretchedExponentialDCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5 Power-LawExponentialDCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
vii
viii Contents
3.6 DuongDCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7 LogisticGrowthDCA. .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 43
3.8 GraphicalVisualization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4 Rate-Pressure-TimeAnalysisforReserveEstimation. . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 RTAforConventionalVerticalWells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1.1 Log-LogPlotAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.2 PNRPlot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.1.3 TheFlowingMaterialBalancePlot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.1.4 ExtensiontoGasReservoirs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 ExtensiontoUnconventionalShaleWells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.1 MFHWs’FlowRegimes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.2 MFHWs’FlowRegimesIdentificationandAnalysis. . . . . 63
4.2.3 RTAofMFHWs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2.4 ApplicationtoMFHWBaseCase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3 Complications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Appendix1:Pressure-RateRelationshipforBoundary-Dominated
FlowUnderConstantRate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Appendix2:Rate-PressureRelationshipforLinearFlowUnder
ConstantRateProduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Appendix3:Rate-PressureRelationshipforLinearFlowUnder
ConstantWellFlowingPressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
References... .... ... .... .... ... .... .... ... .... ... .... .... 77
Chapter 1
fi
De nitions, History, and Differentiating
Characteristics of Shale Hydrocarbon
Recovery
Abstract Inthischapter,themeaningoftheterm“shale”asahydrocarbonresource
is described. Next, a brief history of shale hydrocarbon recovery is presented and
major steps taken to unlock its significant potential are discussed. As discussed in
details in this chapter, most shale reservoirs are petroleum source rocks. The
implicationsofthesourcerocknatureofshalereservoirsforhydrocarbonaccumu-
lation and reservoir development iscoveredby explaining (1) theorigin ofoil and
gas, (2) relative amounts and distribution of source rock resources as compared to
conventional reservoirs, and (3) parameters controlling the source rock quality
primarilybasedontheformofcontainingorganicmatterandrockporespace.The
majorlearningoutcomesofthischapteraretherefore:(1)Definetheterm“shale”in
shale hydrocarbon recovery, (2) describe the technological evolutions that led to
unlockingshalerecoveryintheUS,and(3)identifytheimplicationsoftheshaleasa
source rock for its hydrocarbons content and type, areal extent, and recovery
approach.
1.1 “Shale” Definition
In today’s industry, the term “shale” is typically used to describe any fine-grain
sedimentary rock that require massive stimulation for economic recovery. In this
terminologyshalerockmaybecomposedofclayminerals(smectite,illite,chlorite,
kaolinite),quartz,feldspar,andcarbonates.Mineralcompositionsintheshalecanbe
quite variable. Passey et al. (2010) and Gale et al. (2014) presented the mineral
composition in major shale plays in the US (including Barnett, Eagle Ford, and
MarcellusFormations)accordingtowhichtheclaycontentvariesbetween~10and
70%intheseplayswhiletherestisquartzandcarbonates.
The mineralogy of these rocks is very important for hydrocarbon recovery
because rocks with less clay and more quartz and carbonates are more brittle and
potentially comprised of larger pores. More brittle rocks are easier to fracture in
hydraulicfracturingstimulationcomparedtoductile/deformablerocks.Manyshale
reservoirsarepetroleumsourcerocks,mainlycharacterizedbylowpermeabilityless
than 1 micro Darcy (μD). Tight reservoirs (which are not source rocks) with
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