Table Of ContentSensor Systems
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS
Sensor Systems
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS
Clarence W. de Silva
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: De Silva, Clarence W.
Title: Sensor systems : fundamentals and applications / Clarence W. de Silva.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2017. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016032430 | ISBN 9781498716246 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Detectors. | Systems engineering.
Classification: LCC TK7871.674 .D425 2017 | DDC 681/.2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016032430
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To the memory of my parents.
The true and only practicable object of a polytechnic school is, as I conceive, the teach-
ing, not of the minute details and manipulations of the arts, which can be done only in
the workshop, but the inculcation of those scientific principles which form the basis and
explanation of them, their leading processes and operations in connection with physi-
cal laws.
William Barton Rogers,
Founder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1859
Contents
Preface ...........................................................................................................................................xix
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................xxiii
Author ..........................................................................................................................................xxv
1. Sensor Systems in Engineering ...........................................................................................1
Chapter Objectives ...................................................................................................................1
1.1 Role of Sensors and Sensor Systems ..........................................................................1
1.1.1 Importance of Estimation in Sensing............................................................3
1.1.2 Innovative Sensor Technologies ....................................................................4
1.2 Application Scenarios ...................................................................................................4
1.3 Human Sensory System ...............................................................................................7
1.4 Mechatronic Engineering ............................................................................................8
1.4.1 Mechatronic Approach to Instrumentation .................................................8
1.4.2 Bottlenecks for Mechatronic Instrumentation ............................................9
1.5 Control System Architectures ...................................................................................10
1.5.1 Feedback and Feedforward Control ...........................................................12
1.5.2 Digital Control ................................................................................................13
1.5.3 Programmable Logic Controllers ................................................................16
1.5.3.1 PLC Hardware ................................................................................18
1.5.4 Distributed Control .......................................................................................18
1.5.4.1 Hierarchical Control ......................................................................19
1.6 Instrumentation Process ............................................................................................21
1.6.1 Instrumentation Steps ...................................................................................22
1.6.2 Application Examples ...................................................................................23
1.6.2.1 Networked Application .................................................................23
1.6.2.2 Telemedicine System ......................................................................25
1.6.2.3 Home Care Robotic System ..........................................................28
1.6.2.4 Automated Spatiotemporal Monitoring of Water Quality .......30
1.7 Organization of the Book ...........................................................................................31
Summary Sheet ......................................................................................................................33
Problems ..................................................................................................................................36
2. Component Interconnection ...............................................................................................41
Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................41
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................41
2.1.1 Component Interconnection .........................................................................41
2.1.2 Chapter Objectives .........................................................................................43
2.2 Impedance ....................................................................................................................43
2.2.1 Definition of Impedance ...............................................................................43
2.2.2 Importance of Impedance Matching in Component
Interconnection .............................................................................................44
2.3 Impedance-Matching Methods .................................................................................45
2.3.1 Maximum Power Transfer ............................................................................45
2.3.2 Power Transfer at Maximum Efficiency .....................................................48
vii
viii Contents
2.3.3 Reflection Prevention in Signal Transmission ...........................................48
2.3.4 Loading Reduction ........................................................................................50
2.3.4.1 Cascade Connection of Devices ...................................................50
2.3.4.2 Impedance Matching for Loading Reduction ............................53
2.3.5 Impedance Matching in Mechanical Systems ...........................................54
2.3.5.1 Vibration Isolation ..........................................................................54
Summary Sheet ......................................................................................................................66
Problems ..................................................................................................................................68
3. Amplifiers and Filters ..........................................................................................................73
Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................73
3.1 Signal Modification and Conditioning ....................................................................73
3.1.1 Signal Conditioning ......................................................................................74
3.1.2 Chapter Objectives .........................................................................................74
3.2 Amplifiers.....................................................................................................................74
3.2.1 Operational Amplifier ...................................................................................75
3.2.2 Amplifier Performance Ratings ...................................................................78
3.2.2.1 Sources of Error in Op-Amps .......................................................79
3.2.2.2 Use of Feedback in Op-Amps .......................................................81
3.2.3 Voltage, Current, and Power Amplifiers .....................................................83
3.2.4 Instrumentation Amplifiers .........................................................................86
3.2.4.1 Differential Amplifier ....................................................................86
3.2.4.2 Instrumentation Amplifier ...........................................................88
3.2.4.3 Common Mode ...............................................................................88
3.2.4.4 Charge Amplifier ...........................................................................89
3.2.4.5 AC-Coupled Amplifiers .................................................................90
3.2.5 Noise and Ground Loops .............................................................................90
3.2.5.1 Ground-Loop Noise .......................................................................91
3.3 Analog Filters ..............................................................................................................92
3.3.1 Passive Filters and Active Filters .................................................................94
3.3.1.1 Number of Poles .............................................................................95
3.3.2 Low-Pass Filters ..............................................................................................95
3.3.2.1 Low-Pass Butterworth Filter .........................................................98
3.3.3 High-Pass Filters ..........................................................................................103
3.3.4 Band-Pass Filters ..........................................................................................105
3.3.4.1 Resonance-Type Band-Pass Filters .............................................106
3.3.5 Band-Reject Filters .......................................................................................109
3.3.6 Digital Filters ................................................................................................112
3.3.6.1 Software Implementation and Hardware Implementation .....112
Summary Sheet ....................................................................................................................113
Problems ................................................................................................................................114
4. Signal Conversion Methods .............................................................................................121
Chapter Objectives ...............................................................................................................121
4.1 Signal Modification and Conversion ......................................................................121
4.1.1 Signal Conversion ........................................................................................122
4.1.2 Chapter Objectives .......................................................................................122
Contents ix
4.2 Modulators and Demodulators ...............................................................................122
4.2.1 Amplitude Modulation ...............................................................................125
4.2.1.1 Analog, Discrete, and Digital AM .............................................126
4.2.1.2 Modulation Theorem ...................................................................126
4.2.1.3 Side Frequencies and Sidebands ................................................127
4.2.2 Application of Amplitude Modulation .....................................................127
4.2.3 Demodulation ...............................................................................................131
4.2.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of AM ....................................132
4.2.3.2 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier .......................................132
4.2.3.3 Analog AM Hardware.................................................................133
4.3 Data Acquisition Hardware .....................................................................................133
4.3.1 Digital-to-Analog Converter ......................................................................139
4.3.1.1 Ladder (or R–2R) DAC .................................................................140
4.3.1.2 PWM DAC .....................................................................................142
4.3.1.3 DAC Error Sources .......................................................................143
4.3.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter ......................................................................145
4.3.2.1 Successive Approximation ADC ................................................146
4.3.2.2 Delta–Sigma ADC ........................................................................148
4.3.2.3 ADC Performance Characteristics .............................................148
4.3.3 Sample-and-Hold Hardware ......................................................................150
4.3.4 Multiplexer ....................................................................................................152
4.3.4.1 Analog Multiplexers ....................................................................153
4.3.4.2 Digital Multiplexers .....................................................................154
4.4 Bridge Circuits ...........................................................................................................156
4.4.1 Wheatstone Bridge .......................................................................................156
4.4.2 Constant-Current Bridge ............................................................................158
4.4.3 Hardware Linearization of Bridge Outputs .............................................160
4.4.3.1 Bridge Amplifiers .........................................................................161
4.4.4 Half-Bridge Circuits .....................................................................................161
4.4.5 Impedance Bridges ......................................................................................162
4.4.5.1 Owen Bridge .................................................................................163
4.4.5.2 Wien-Bridge Oscillator ................................................................164
4.5 Linearizing Devices ..................................................................................................164
4.5.1 Nature of Nonlinearities .............................................................................165
4.5.1.1 Linearization Methods ................................................................165
4.5.1.2 Linearization by Software ...........................................................167
4.5.1.3 Linearization by Logic Hardware..............................................168
4.5.2 Analog Linearizing Hardware ..................................................................169
4.5.2.1 Offsetting Circuitry .....................................................................170
4.5.2.2 Proportional-Output Hardware .................................................172
4.5.2.3 Curve-Shaping Hardware ...........................................................173
4.6 Miscellaneous Signal Conversion Hardware ........................................................174
4.6.1 Phase Shifters ...............................................................................................174
4.6.1.1 Applications ..................................................................................174
4.6.1.2 Analog Phase Shift Hardware ....................................................175
4.6.1.3 Digital Phase Shifter ....................................................................176
