Table Of ContentSensor Systems for Environmental Monitoring
Volume Two: Environmental Monitoring
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Sensor Systems for
Environmental Monitoring
Volume Two: Environmental Monitoring
Edited by
M. Campbell
Department of Physical Sciences
Glasgow Caledonian University
Glasgow
UK
m
BLACKIE ACADEMIC &. PROFESSIONAL
An Imprint of Chapman & Hall
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Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK
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First edition 1997
© 1997 Chapman & Hall
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1997
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ISBN-13: 978-94-010-6533-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-01 01-8
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-0101-8
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ro
Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI I
~SO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of paper)
To my wife, Imelda Anne,
for her encouragement and
support during the compilation
of this book.
Contents
Volume 2
List of contributors xvii
1 Land pollution 1
G.P. Bishop and J.L.E. Flack
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Origins and forms of land pollution 3
1.1.2 Legislation 4
1.2 Common contaminant types and environmental behaviour 16
1.2.1 Contaminants and site use 16
1.2.2 Commonly occurring contaminant types 17
1.2.3 Factors affecting contaminant behaviour 19
1.3 Sampling and analytical procedures 26
1.3.1 General strategies 26
1.3.2 Retrieval of samples 32
1.3.3 Retrieval ofliquid-phase and gaseous-phase samples 34
1.3.4 Sample preservation 35
1.3.5 Laboratory analysis 39
1.4 Monitoring equipment and instrumentation 41
1.4.1 Discrete monitoring: indirect determination of subsurface conditions 41
1.4.2 Discrete monitoring: direct determination of subsurface conditions 44
1.4.3 Field testing kits 49
1.4.4 Continuous and automatic monitoring 50
1.5 Summary 53
1.5.1 Future requirements 54
1.5.2 Pro-active monitoring and auditing 55
References 55
2 Water pollution 58
J.M. Crowther
2.1 Introduction 58
2.1.1 Rationale for monitoring water pollution 58
2.1.2 Water quality variables and standards 62
2.2 Sampling 63
2.2.1 Spatial and temporal sampling intervals 63
2.2.2 Sample averaging 64
2.2.3 Flow-proportional sampling 64
2.2.4 Event sampling 65
2.2.5 Practical sampling techniques 65
2.3 Continuous monitoring 67
2.3.1 In situ sensors 67
2.3.2 Pumped systems 68
2.3.3 Data logging 68
2.3.4 Telementry and warning systems 69
viii CONTENTS
2.4 Physical variables 69
2.4.1 Temperature 69
2.4.2 Conductivity, salinity and total dissolved solids 72
2.4.3 Turbidity and suspended solids 76
2.4.4 Colour 81
2.5 Chemical variables 82
2.5.1 Dissolved oxygen 82
2.5.2 Acidity, alkalinity and pH 85
2.5.3 Anions 89
2.5.4 Cations 92
2.5.5 Petrochemicals, oils and grease 97
2.5.6 Pesticide and herbicide residues 98
2.6 Biological variables 99
2.6.1 Biochemical oxygen demand 99
2.6.2 Total organic carbon 99
2.6.3 Chemical oxygen demand 100
2.6.4 Bacterial concentration 100
2.6.5 Phytoplankton concentration 102
2.7 Conclusions 1m
2.7.1 Summary 103
2.7.2 Future trends 104
Acknowledgements 105
References 105
3 Air pollution 107
J.N. Cape
3.1 Introduction 107
3.1.1 Air quality standards 109
3.1.2 Air pollution on the global scale 111
3.2 Characterisation of atmospheric pollutants 111
3.2.1 Gases 111
3.2.2 Particles 116
3.2.3 Dissolved pollutants 118
3.3 Air polIution sampling 119
3.3.1 Sampling philosophy 119
3.3.2 Sampling in practice 121
3.4 Monitoring modes 125
3.4.1 Continuous methods 125
3.4.2 Integrated methods 133
3.5 Conclusions 139
3.5.1 Future requirements 140
References 140
4 Periodic methods for monitoring air pollution 144
B./. Brookes
4.1 Introduction 144
4.2 Sampling: the problems to overcome 145
4.3 Losses to the sample line 147
4.3.1 Condensation 147
4.3.2 Impaction 151
4.3.3 Adsorption lSI
4.3.4 Reactivity 151
4.4 Classification of pollutants 151
4.5 Classification of air samplers 154
4.5.1 Extractive air samplers 154
4.5.2 Non-extractive devices 156
CONTENTS ~
4.6 Detection limit 157
4.7 Gas velocity and total flow in a duct 157
4.7.1 Tenns used in flow measurements 159
4.7.2 Flow measurements for total flow 159
4.7.3 Flow measurements in swirling flow conditions 160
4.7.4 Flow measurements associated with particulate sampling 160
4.7.5 A procedure for small-and medium-scale industry 165
4.7.6 Non-standard flow patterns 166
4.8 Measurement of particulate in ducts 166
4.8.1 Particle sizes 167
4.8.2 Particle segregation 169
4.8.3 Sample positions in the duct 170
4.8.4 Isokinetic sampling 170
4.8.5 Non-standard conditions 173
4.8.6 Monitoring methods 174
4.8.7 Analysis 177
4.9 Sampling devices for non-reactive gases and vapours 180
4.9.1 Grabs or non-extractable samplers 180
4.9.2 Adsorption tubes with solvent recovery 180
4.9.3 Adsorption tubes with thennal recovery 189
4.10 Wet impingers and sintered glass absorbers 196
4.11 Cryogenic methods 197
4.11.1 Total cryogenic sampling 197
4.11.2 Cryogenic tubes 198
4.11.3 Condensate samplers 198
4.12 Odour measurement 198
4.13 Instrumental methods for use in the field 201
4.13.1 Advantages and disadvantages offield instrnments 201
4.13.2 Data loggers 202
4.13.3 Calibration 203
4.13.4 Calibrating monitors for volatile organic compounds 204
4.14 Standard atmospheres 207
4.14.1 Aerosols 208
4.14.2 Gases and vapours 209
4.15 Selected methods 211
4.16 Conclusion 211
Acknowledgements 224
Appendix 1: References to the Environmental Protection Agency of the USA 225
Appendix 2: References to the NIOSH methods 228
Appendix 3: References to the Health and Safety Executive methods for the
detennination of hazardous substances (HSE MDHS) 229
Appendix 4: References to the ASTM standard methods 229
References 231
5 Industrial methods of spectrophotometric measurements in process
control 236
A.D. McIntyre
5.1 Introduction to process analytical chemistry 236
5.1.1 Off-line era 237
5.1.2 At-line era 237
5.1.3 On-line era 237
5.1.4 In-line era 239
5.1.5 Non-invasive era 241
5.1.6 Summary 241
5.2 Project route 241
5.2.1 Project definition 242
5.2.2 Applications engineering 243
x CONTENTS
5.2.3 Technology transfer 249
5.5.4 Documentation 249
5.3 Industrial uses of spectroscopy 250
5.4 Industrial measurements in the UV-visible region 251
5.4.1 Photometer analyser design 251
5.4.2 Spectrophotometer analysers 254
5.4.3 Flow injection analysers 258
5.4.4 Process applications of FIA 261
5.4.5 Summary 265
5.5 Industrial measurements in the IR region 265
5.5.1 Mid-IR spectroscopic analysis 265
5.5.2 Near-IR spectroscopic analysis 269
5.6 Quantitative measurement in spectroscopy 27]
5.6.1 Beer's law 27]
5.6.2 Derivative techniques 272
5.6.3 Absorbance ratio analysis 275
5.6.4 Multicomponent analysis 275
5.6.5 Curve fitting 276
5.6.6 Chemometrics 277
5.7 Future trends 280
References 281
6 Noise and vibration 283
P. Strachan
6.1 Introduction 283
6.2 Noise sources 284
6.2.1 Introduction 284
6.2.2 Traffic 285
6.2.3 Railways 286
6.2.4 Aircraft 286
6.2.5 Industrial and commercial developments 288
6.2.6 Wind turbines 288
6.2.7 Building services 288
6.2.8 Mechanisms for sound transmission within buildings 289
6.3 Legislation 290
6.3.1 Planning guidelines 290
6.3.2 Environmental assessment 292
6.3.3 Environmental Protection Act 1990 292
6.3.4 Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act 1993 292
6.3.5 Control of Pollution Act 1974 292
6.3.6 Industrial and commercial developments 292
6.3.7 Neighbour noise 293
6.3.8 Codes of practice 293
6.3.9 Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations 1986 293
6.3.10 EC directives 294
6.3.11 Aircraft regulations 294
6.3.12 Railways 294
6.3.13 Noise at work regulations 294
6.3.14 Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (1992) 295
6.3.15 Building regulations 295
6.3.16 Vibration 296
6.4 Measurement 297
6.4.1 Sound pressure meter 297
6.4.2 Calibration 299
6.4.3 Monitoring points 299
6.4.4 Meteorological conditions 300
6.4.5 Sound power measurements 300
CONTENTS xi
6.4.6 Sound intensity measurements 301
6.4.7 Vibration measurements 301
6.5 Noise reduction and control 302
6.5.1 Traffic 303
6.5.2 Railways 304
6.5.3 Aircraft 304
6.5.4 Wind turbines 305
6.5~5 Sound within buildings 305
6.5.6 Vibration control 306
6.6 Future trends 306
6.7 Glossary 307
References 309
7 Ionising radiation 311
J. Gemmill
7.1 Introduction to radiation 311
7.1.1 Use of radioactive substances 311
7.1.2 Legislation 313
7.2 Properties of ionising tadiation 314
7.2.1 Radioactive decay 314
7.2.2 Types of radiation 316
7.2.3 Units of radiation 317
7.2.4 Health effects 317
7.2.5 Hazards 319
7.2.6 Protection standards 320
7.3 Sources of ionising radiation 320
7.3.1 Natural sources 320
7.3.2 Artificial sources 321
7.3.3 Summary of radiation sources 321
7.4 In situ measurements 322
7.4.1 Health physics instruments 322
7.4.2 External dose rate 325
7.4.3 Surface contamination 326
7.4.4 Field )I-ray spectrometry 327
7.5 Sampling 328
7.5.1 General considerations 328
7.5.2 Soils 329
7.5.3 Vegetation 330
7.5.4 Atmospheric sampling 331
7.5.5 Sediments 332
7.5.6 Waters 333
7.6 Analytical procedures 334
7.6.1 Physical preparation 334
7.6.2 Chemical separation 335
7.6.3 Instrumentation 336
7.6.4 Quality assurance and validation 340
7.7 Case study 341
7.8 Conclusions 342
7.8.1 Summary 342
7.8.2 Future trends 343
References 343
Index 347
